Camera Phones and Invasion of Privacy Essay -- Exploratory Essays Rese

photographic photographic camera Phones and Invasion of Privacy pertly technology has.placed all of us in an electronic fishbowl in which our habits, tastes and activities are watched and recorded. as told by Simson Garfinkel (Ojeda). In the 21st century it is easy to awe people with new technology. Take two popular gadgets, merge them into a single point-and-click device, and then watch the world go nuts over it. This is a fact that will never change. Technology in this world is growth every day and there are products being discovered every moment to satisfy the needs of the consumer or make their living more luxurious. Camera vigorous phones are only a new-made invention unless they sure have the world going gaga over them already.Technology threatens privacy, but who doesnt like technology? The teenagers of this generation are crazy behind new technologies of any kind such as a good euphony system for their rooms or good mobile phones with many features. Any such products w ithin their reach will be in their hands in no time. All of these things are good, but in a way they are dangerous and threaten privacy. For instance if we do have a practice of medicine system with a lot of wattage pumping out of it, the neighbor will surely come running after you because it threatens his or her privacy. In the same way, the mobile phones also have so many features that some or the other feature might not be safe to use for the privacy of the state-supported like a phone with an integrated digital camera.Although concept of introducing a digital camera in a mobile phone is a recent discovery, people today enjoy the luxury of this concept day in and day out all over the world. It may seem that a camera phone would be no different than having a cell phone and a camera, but in truth, ... ... crackdown on camera phones. BBC News. 20 July 2004. 16 November 2004 . * Batista, Elisa. New Privacy Menace Cell Phones? Wired News. 17 February 2003. 16 November 2004 . * Bels on, Ken. When Etiquette Isnt Enough, a Cell phone Cone of Silence. New York Times. 7 November 2004page 2. Week In Review Desk. * Hamilton, Anita. CAMERA PHONES. Time. 2003. 16 November 2004 . * Harvey, Fiona. Camera Phones, Privacy Concerns Not Clicking. Los Angeles Times. 3 November 2003A19. Business. * Napolitano, Jo. Hold It Right There, And Drop That Camera. New York Times. 11 December 2003Circuits. * Ojeda, Auriana. Civil Liberties Text. greens heaven Press, 2004.

How to cheat on your spouse :: essays research papers

How To Cheat On Your Spouse"Oh the weather outside is frightful, but your thighs are so delightful. She has no place to go, let her blow, let her blow, let her blow." I caught a bit of the holiday spirit on the way to the mall and began humming the Christmas song while driving coldcock the highway. Somewhere along the way I changed the words a bit and laughed. Dont I wish I mean, my secretary was a cutie, and yes, she would have made an glorious partner in the sack. But there was a little problem I was married with three children, and the little woman at home frowned upon married transgressions. I know that for a fact, because it wasnt all that long ago that she caught me in the act. That was not a pretty scene. After some time and counseling, we mended fences, but I got the ultimatum even flirting with another woman was cause for her to give me the pink slip, kissing her, my kids, our house and most of our bank account, goodbye. I took those words to heart, and have been a model husband for more than half a decade. Then there are guys like Artie, a manager in the Accounting Department at the company where Im employed. On the outside hes a pleasant enough guy in his early 30s with a wife and two lovely children. Behind the scenes, though, hes a wolf. A certifiable louse. Hes strayed more times than a barnyard cat, and somehow has never been caught. I thought of this while driving to the mall, and given my past history, decided to strike him how he does it. I didnt think he would answer, but it wouldnt hurt to ask. So I did. Much to my surprise, Artie was agreeable, and over a few beers at our local Irish pub, we spoke about the ins and outs, so to speak, of cheating on ones spouse. What follows are his frank answers to my probing questions. Q Weve talked in the past about some of your, well, dalliances, and I wondered if you could answer a few questions, anonymously, of course. A Ask away Q Do you love your wife? A Of course. Shes a darling, the mot her of my children, and a great friend too. Q Then why...? A (Interrupting) Why do I, uh, stray?

Karl Marx Essay -- sociology, marx, positivism

Chose one of sociologys founding figures and critically assess his or her particular contribution.thither are many of sociologys founding figures that have extremely well-built ideas, practices and studies that I could explore, but one far-famed philosopher stands out amongst the crowd, and that person is named Karl Marx (1818-1883). In this essay I take on to explore and critically assess his ideas, theories, and studies in his contribution to sociology, and if his ideas, theories and studies are useful to this contribution to sociology. Sociology began in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in Western Europe. Around this time, the political and economic systems in Europe were changing. Things like the Monarchy, (which was the rule of Kings and Queens) was disappearing, while capitalism was growing rapidly. diametrical societies began contacting eachother, and the economic markets began developing. Things were most definitely changing, and there was now style for new ideas to bloom. Something that had an enormous impact on the development of sociology was the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment was characterised by faith in the ability of human reason to solve societys problems. (Chapter 1, Andersen and Taylor , 2008). During the Enlightenment, ideas began to establish themselves and in conclusion answered sociological studies. Positivism is based on the idea that it is possible to observe complaisant life and establish intricate knowledge about how it whole kit and caboodle. It says that sociology should lone(prenominal) be observed with senses yet the theories of sociology should be observed in a methogical way. Although it does not effect modern sociology, as it does not take into account the point that some methods do not allow the ideas to be observed... ...3 Boundless. The Marxist Critique of Capitalism. Online open from https//www.boundless.com/sociology/understanding-economy/economic-systems--2/the-marxist-critique-of-capitalism/ Accessed on 17 Dec 2013Chapter XX. Marx K. 1893. Das Kapital. Volume II gain ground Publishers.Marx K. 1848. The Communist Manifesto. International Publishing Co. Marx K. 1848. The Victory of the Counter Revolution of Vienna. Online November 12th. Available from http//www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/11/06.htm Accessed on 17 Dec 2013H. 1879. Interview with Karl Marx. Online January 5th.. Available from http//www.marxists.org/archive/marx/bio/media/marx/79_01_05.htm Accessed on 17 Dec 2013sociologytwynham. 2013. Marxist views of the Family Online. Available from http//sociologytwynham.com/2013/06/13/marxist/ Accessed on 17 Dec 2013 Karl Marx Essay -- sociology, marx, positivismChose one of sociologys founding figures and critically assess his or her particular contribution.There are many of sociologys founding figures that have extremely well-built ideas, practices and studies that I could explore, but one renowned philosopher stands out amongst the crowd, and that person is named Karl Marx (1818-1883). In this essay I aim to explore and critically assess his ideas, theories, and studies in his contribution to sociology, and if his ideas, theories and studies are useful to this contribution to sociology. Sociology began in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in Western Europe. Around this time, the political and economic systems in Europe were changing. Things like the Monarchy, (which was the rule of Kings and Queens) was disappearing, while capitalism was growing rapidly. Different societies began contacting eachother, and the economic markets began developing. Things were most definitely changing, and there was now room for new ideas to bloom. Something that had an enormous impact on the development of sociology was the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment was characterised by faith in the ability of human reason to solve societys problems. (Chapter 1, Andersen and Taylor , 2008). During the Enlightenment, ideas began to establish themsel ves and eventually effected sociological studies. Positivism is based on the idea that it is possible to observe social life and establish intricate knowledge about how it works. It says that sociology should only be observed with senses yet the theories of sociology should be observed in a methogical way. Although it does not effect modern sociology, as it does not take into account the fact that some methods do not allow the ideas to be observed... ...3 Boundless. The Marxist Critique of Capitalism. Online Available from https//www.boundless.com/sociology/understanding-economy/economic-systems--2/the-marxist-critique-of-capitalism/ Accessed on 17 Dec 2013Chapter XX. Marx K. 1893. Das Kapital. Volume II Progress Publishers.Marx K. 1848. The Communist Manifesto. International Publishing Co. Marx K. 1848. The Victory of the Counter Revolution of Vienna. Online November 12th. Available from http//www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/11/06.htm Accessed on 17 Dec 2013H. 1879. Inter view with Karl Marx. Online January 5th.. Available from http//www.marxists.org/archive/marx/bio/media/marx/79_01_05.htm Accessed on 17 Dec 2013sociologytwynham. 2013. Marxist views of the Family Online. Available from http//sociologytwynham.com/2013/06/13/marxist/ Accessed on 17 Dec 2013

Killer Angels Essays -- essays research papers

The Killer AngelsThe Battle of Gettysburg brought the dueling North and South together to the small t witness of Gettysburg and on the threshold of carve up the Union. Gettysburg was as close as the United States got to Armageddon and The Killer Angels gives the full day-to-day account of the battle that shaped Americas future. Michael Shaara tells the story of the Battle of Gettysburg done the eyes of the generals and men involved in the action of the battle. The diachronic account of the Battle of Gettysburg gives the reader a chance to experience the battle personally and non the history book manner taught in schools. A historical novel gives the facts straightfor struggled and provides no commentary by the people involved in history. The historical account of the Battle of Gettysburg, as seen in Killer Angels, provides the facts of the battle as seen through the eyes of superior generals Robert E. Lee, Joshua Chamberlain, James Longstreet, and John Buford. The feelings and inner-thoughts of each General and the conditions of the battle atomic number 18 seen, heard, and felt by the reader in the historical account. Shaara takes historical license with letters, the words of the men, and documents written during the three hellish days of the battle. Shaara avoids historical opinion and provides his own opinion to struggleds the Civil War and the people. The historical account of the Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg specifically, in Killer Angels conveys the attitude to toward war, attitude towards the Civil War, and cause for fighting the war of General Robert E. Lee, Joshua Chamberlain, James Longstreet, and John Buford. General Robert E. Lee gained stoic and legendary status as the heart and soul of the South in the Civil War, provided many did not know his reasons and feelings for fighting the war. War and the slaughter of others did not interest Lee and he felt com persistion for the Union. Lee had contradictory feelings towards war and says, He was not only to serve in it but he was to lead it, to make the plans, and issue the orders to kill and burn and ruinhe could not do that (Shaara 263). The Civil War is not in the taste of General Lee, but feels it is his duty, and he cannot just stand by and watch the war pass him by. Michael Shaara says of Lees reason for fighting the Civil War , He found that he had no choiceLee could not raise his flip over against his own. And so what then? T... ...eiving recognition for saving the high ground and perhaps the battle. Colonel Joshua Chamberlain is given a brigade after the battle of Gettysburg but is wounded sextette times. He is regarded as one of the greatest soldiers in American history, and receives numerous medals for honor during the Battle of Gettysburg. Ulysses Grant gives him the honor of Major General for heroism and is elect by Grant as the officer to receive the Southern surrender at Appomattox. Chamberlain is elected the governor of Maine and eventually elected P resident of Bowdoin College. He dies from his wounds in June 1914 at the age of eighty-three. General Longstreet asks to be relieved of command after the Battle of Gettysburg, but Lee makes him stay. After the war he blames Lee for the injustice of Gettysburg, and this does not sit well with people. His theory of defensive war is very advanced for the time. He serves as President of Washington College until his death in 1904. General Lee remains the symbol of all that is proud and noble in the South. He asks to be relieved of his command but it is denied. After the war he asks for pardon from Congress and it is denied until 1970. Lee dies of heart disease in 1870.

Comparing Henry Miller and Jack Kerouac Essay -- Authors Writers Big S

Comparing hydrogen Miller and Jack KerouacI. IntroductionIt has never been an uncommon thing for ace to retreat to nature in an attempt to find peerlesss self, and somewhat clich these days is the retreat to nature to find God. Hundreds of books, essays, seminars, and retreats devote themselves to helping genius understand how to find enlightenment and healing through connecting with nature. It is a phenomenon that transcends religious boundariese preciseone, from Buddhists to Christian Mystics to Quakers, seems to think that the key (or, at least, one of the keys) to enlightenment lies in nature. As one may suppose, this is not a new concept. Throughout literary history, in that location is a distinct trend of authors praising the virtues of nature, singing of the peace that it brings and the enlightening attributes of these places away from the noise and clutter of the cities. Shakespeare tells of finding tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, and sermons in stone(Sha kespeare) William Wordsworth implores us to let nature be our teacher Goethe claims that there is rest and respite on the mountain top and George Washington Carver admits that he tries commune with nature everyday. It seems that from Henry David Thoreau right down to contemporary authors, no generation or writing period has been devoid of at least one prolific author who takes to nature in order to find the answers. deuce such authors, searching forwell, searching for that certain enlightenment and repose that can only be found in nature, were Henry Miller and Jack Kerouac. And disdain the fact that Big tire, California, is the chosen destination for revelation for both authors and that both authors are torn between the introspective qualities of being secluded, and the desire for connectedness to society, they were from (moderately) antithetic lifestyles and backgrounds and viewed the revelations that nature bestowed to them individually quite differently. By contrasting the situ ations and temperaments of the two authors, one can begin to see why their experiences differed so greatly. II. Henry MillerHenry Miller, born in December of 1891, spent the majority of his childhood in Brooklyn (Henry Miller 1). He attended high school, but never absolute college instead, he worked a variety of jobs that never lasted long, from driving a cab to working in a library (ibid.). In 1917, he ma... ...city (thus, they are very occupied with what is happening in their community.) This seems to be Millers salvation, while at the same time being Kerouacs downfall. Regardless of why it worked for one and not the other, it is evident that both sought what so many today seek to connect themselves with God and to find peace by submersing themselves in nature. Bibliography foil Page, The. Rooknet.com. 4 December 2004. Ferguson, Robert. Henry Miller A Life. New York W W Norton & Co Inc, 1993.Henry Miller. 1. Levity.com. 7 December 2004. Henry Miller. 2. Literary Kicks. 7 Decembe r 2004. Jack Kerouac. Literary Kicks. 4 December 2004. Kenedi, Aaron and John Miller, eds. Henry Miller-Big Sur. Where Inspiration Lives Writers, Artists, and Their Creative Places. Navato New World Library, 2003. Kerouac, Jack. Big Sur. New York Peguin Books, 1992. Miller, Henry. Big Sur and the Oranges of Hieronymus Bosch. New York New Direction Publishing Corporation, 1957. Shakespeare, William. As You Like It. 1623. Literature Online. Proquest Learning and Information Company. Maureen and Mike Mansfield Library, MT., 2 January 2005.

Athenians and Spartans :: essays research papers

The Spartan and Athenian civilizations carried on conflict from 431 to 404 B.C. (Bunson 195). Twenty seven geezerhood of blood shed and armed combat was carried on between these peoples and their allies that were involved. The first ten age of the war was fighting and often called the Archidamian War after the Spartan king Archidamus II, following the fighting was the Peace of Nicias in 421 B.C., after this was eight unstable years of peace and more fighting, followed by the Ionian War (Bunson1277). These devil civilizations were nothing like each other however some of their warfare techniques must have been similar to have fought for so long.The Spartan civilization was ace that focused on physical and military machine power rather than academics (Jones 153). While men were still young they were taken from their families and went to a school that taught military training. If all men didnt participate in this training their citizenship was denied to them. By the 6th century B.C. the Spartan army was know as the most efficient fighting force in Greece, the army consisted of 5000 people which were all citizens (Jones 154). Sparta was able to do this because their farming was done by subservient workers known as captives who were forced to do work on the land (Jones 154). By doing this the citizens were able to be fully devoted to their military.Unlike the Spartan civilization that was so focused on the military the Athenians were more involved with bringing culture and art into their lives. They were famous for their pottery with geometric designs, they also created the first outlines of the human body which would later bring them tasty achievement (Meiggs 193). During the 7th century B.C. there was much emphasis put on the craftsmanship and handicraft work that was being developed (Meiggs 193). One known figure in Athens that increased the culture was Pisistratus an able politician, he was responsible for opening up the city to Ionian philosophical and artistic influences. also he made the first recording of the Panathenaea, a major collection of religious worship. Also because of other abled politicians and generals such as Aristides, Cimon, and Pericles Athens prospered for 50 years in political, artistic, philosophical and financial spheres (Meiggs 192). However this changed when in 431 the Peloponnesian War began because of Spartas uneasiness with the expansion on Athens ( Meiggs 195).The Athenians and

The main purpose of the National Rifle Association (NRA)

The chief(prenominal) purpose of the National conk out fellowship (NRA)1 is to promote and encourage rifle slam on a scientific basis.2 Along with this key initiative, the NRA has another(prenominal) promoting sights that harbor the same motto such as the Institute for Legislative Action3, and the NRA Foundation4 (Source Watch, December 2005).The goals of the NRA may be considered conservative because it is an organization priding itself on the proper use of crampfish discipline, and it repeatedly goes back to the second admendemnt that allows citizenry to bear implements of war. The goals tend to be more on the conservative side since the point of the organization is for citizenry to keep and use firearms and hold a militia in circumstance of infringing governemnt cut back. The side that counteracts any abortive government with military action as the second amendment states5,The irregular Amendment guarantees A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the well(p) of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. This guarantees a citizens right to keep and bear arms for personal defense. The revolutionary experience caused our forebears to address a second concern the ability of Americans to master(prenominal)tain a citizen militia. The Founding Fathers trusted an armed citizenry as the best safeguard against the possibility of a haughty government.The NRA then is a conservative organization. This is true because the NRA is only for law-abiding citizens having heros while a liberal stance would be for no peerless having a gun. That is the main difference. Conservatives then believe that guns are used for self-defense. The main base of the NRA is shooting according to a scientific basis, and therefore gun control is not noble-minded for an NRA member. They believe that gun control laws are not applicable in todays society although there are staggering statistics that prove that gun control does work because per capita countries with gun control laws have less gun related incidents and death6. In all the NRA is a actually conservative organization.One of the main politicians that oppose the gun control issue is power congressman John Thune7. The politician that is for gun control is Senate Minority Leader Tom Daschle. Their views are very much strictly conservative opposing fundamental liberalism. In areas such a gun control and the laws arising in the senate for or against these laws both politicians have adamantly stood in contrast to the other, as the NRA website states in Coxs article,Since 1986, Daschle has cast literally dozens of anti-gun votes in the U.S. Senate. He voted for the Clinton gun ban in 1994 and again earlier this year. He voted for prohibitions that would have shut d ingest gun shows across America And as the leader of his party in the U.S. Senate, Daschle carries far more sluggard and control over fellow Democrats than you might think. And time after ti me, he has chosen to use that raw power against gun owners. In contrast, Daschles challenger, former Congressman John Thune, has been a committed defender of Second Amendment granting immunity since his first vote in Congress. During his tenure in the House, John Thune voted to prohibit the populational government from keeping computerized records of gun purchases and to protect the American tradition of weekend gun shows.These two politicians are polar opposites with issues concerning guns. Of course on of the biggest debates on gun issues arose in the 2004 elections with John Kerry being obdurately opposed to guns and even wanted to ban them while Bush of course took the other stance and recommendd guns and by wing phone the NRA.In the NRAs goals of liberty, equality, and democracy hold true to the idea of freedom. That is why the Second Amendment is so vital to the NRAs standing infrastructure it allows citizens to hold onto freedom with militia and guns in case of the ince ption of an autocratic government or despot scenario. In this belief the NRA has a foundation dedicated to education rough freedom and guns.The goal again of the NRA is to promote and encourage rifle shooting on a scientific basis. The ideal of democracy is a nation for the people and the NRA seeks to uphold that goal. In order to do so, and the maintain liberty, and equality the NRA foundation is a modicum that allows for people to exerise their right of bearing arms, as the website states,Established in 1990, The NRA Foundation, Inc., is a 501(c)(3) tax-exempt organization that raises tax-deductible contributions in plunk for of a wide range of firearm related public interest activities of the National ransack Association of America and other organizations that defend and foster the Second Amendment rights of all law-abiding Americans. These activities are designed to promote firearms and capture safety, to enhance marksmanship skills of those participating in the shooting spo rts, and to educate the general public about firearms in their historic, technological and artistic context.The Foundation is about protection protect freedom through use of guns. In all, the goals of the NRA in direct accord with their view of liberty, equality and democracy.There are however interest groups that exist that oppose the NRA and their beliefs. Some of these groups are affiliated with sentient being protection. Though the NRA does hunt animals they do so with proper licensure. The animal rights groups (FETA, National Humane Society of America) oppose the use of trapping, baiting, and hunting with dogs. The opposition stems from the NRA believing all(prenominal) animal should be hunted without restriction to the animal rights groups wanting to limit hunting on specific species (bear, dove, etc) because of endangerment and other issues.In other instances the NRA helps to control a rising population of animal through hunting, as the website further states,Animal rights extremists from The Humane Society of the United States and other groups came out in strong support of a bill to stop the bear hunt in Maryland. Maryland DNR opposes the legislation and maintains this is needed to properly manage the bear population.The opposition to guns and by extension to the NRA is that they do not regulate their hunting but instead say that hunting a citizens right. On the other hand, the NRA helps to maintain population control by hunting. If hunters (or NRA active supporters) did not hunt then the population might get out of control and that animal would invading the space of humans, and in the case of the white-tailed deer their numbers would increase steadily and more people would get into wrecks because their population wasnt checked through the use of fire-arms. Also, in the view of an NRA member, hunting is a legitimate means by which to supply their family with food so not only is hunting unsloped for society but it is also good for the family.The NRA also has volunteer positions in its organization. These positions include duties such as protecting freedom for gun owners. Volunteers answer calls for the organization, and are called EVC (Election Volunteer Coordinators). These volunteers as the NRA website states,all EVCs fare on a voluntary basis, and ARE NOT employed by NRA. Rather, like you, they are NRA Members and volunteers who have stepped forward to help organize fellow Second Amendment supporters in an effort to protect our freedoms. If you are able to give ANY time to assist with volunteer activities in support of topical anaesthetic pro-gun candidates, please affect the EVC in your area.The point of becoming a volunteer is to be actively involved in the protection of the Second Amendment in ones own community. A volunteer makes their surrounding community aware of the NRA and its issues through town-hall meetings, writing letters, writing newspaper articles, and in other ways during election years so that the citize nry is aware of the gun issues at hand are better equipped with gun knowledge. There are also volunteer organizations involved with promoting the ideas of the NRA, one of which is the Firearms Coalition of cobalt and as the NRA website states,Formed 14 years ago to fight the City of Denvers attempts to ban numerous semi-auto firearms, the Firearms Coalition of Colorado (FCC) exemplifies just what it means to be a volunteer organization. During the last 14 years, working side-by-side with NRA-ILA, FCC has steadfastly continued its efforts to thwart countless attacks by anti-gun politicians at the local and state levels. These are the ladies and gentlemen that you commonly find working at 300 a.m. if that is what it takes to get the job done.The purpose of volunteers and volunteer organizations is to promote gun awareness and to advocate the Second Amendment.The NRA is an organization dedicated to fire arms and the proper use of such firearms. It is a strong advocate of the Second Am endment and is proud to take control of guns and the rights of the citizenry to use those guns for personal purpose without the interference of the government. As their website states, and this paper reiterates, the NRA wasEstablished in 1975, the Institute for Legislative Action (ILA) is the lobbying arm of the National Rifle Association of America. ILA is committed to preserving the right of all law-abiding individuals to purchase, possess and use firearms for legitimate purposes as guaranteed by the Second Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.It is therefore an organization priding itself on protecting an individuals freedom, equality and democracy. To achieve this, volunteers work during elections to ensure everyone is aware of gun issues and how to ensure that guns are not banned from the country. The right to bear arms is important to the NRA because it ensures that an autocratic government does not take control of the nation, and guns are an important decipherer in that equatio n of freedom.Work CitedFriends of NRA. http//www.nrafoundation.org/NRA Organization. http//www.nraila.org/index.aspxSource Watch. (December, 2005). National Rifle Association. http//www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=National_Rifle_Association1 A foundation founded in 1871 (2 This quote can be found on the NRA website at, http//www.nra.org/ 3 This is the NRAs lobbying arm, which means it is a group of legislatures promoting the cause of the NRA with politicians and other public officials. 4 a 501(c)(3) tax-exempt organization, which provides a means to raise millions of dollars to fund gun safety and educational projects of benefit to the general public. (NRA website). 5 This quote is found on the NRA website and it furthers to explain the cause of the organization in regards to its fundamental motto and the fact that the NRA is trying to protect and legislate a citizens right to weapons in case of a tyrannical government. 6 There is a list of other conservative related issues pert aining to the NRA that are conservatives believe that background checks are not necessary for owning a gun, it is flagitious to license gun owners, again there is the Second Amendment for the bearing of arms to protect individual rights, the NRA also holds true that it is wrong for individuals to sue gun companies. 7 Of sulfur Dakota

Linguistics research Essay

1. Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2. Phonology The study of how sounds are put together and apply in communion is called phonology. 3. Syntax The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form shoot downences is called syntax. . 4 Design features it constitutered to the defining properties of sympathetic language that tell the discrepancy in the midst of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of living creature communication. 5. Psycholinguistics The study of language with reference to the works of mind is called psycholinguistics.6. Language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 7. Phonetics The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 8. Morphology The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. 9. Parole it referred to the positive phenomena or data of ling uistics. V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for exercise if necessary 1. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Explain it in detail. First of all, language is a system, because Elements of language are com bined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the uniform object in the dry land. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This similarly explains the symbolic nature of language words are just Symbols they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by conven tion.Thirdly, language is vocal because the first medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. The term human in the definition indicates that language is possessed by hu man beings only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term communication means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their commu nicative needs. 2. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples. 1) Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no perspicuous connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no nec essary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirely arbitrary. in that respect are words which are created in the imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English.Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words a re quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unbounded source of expressions. 2) Productivity Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con struction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can plead and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have never said or heard before.They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. 3) Duality The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds.But the sounds of la nguage can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or dou ble articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it. 4) Displacement Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are pledge or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. 5) Cultural transmission Human beings were born with the ability to take in language, but the details of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genet ically trans mitted. 3. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study the de scription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time. 4. Why does modern linguistics regard the communicate form of language as primary, not the written? First, the utter form is prior to the writ ten form and most writing systems are derived from The verbalise form of lan guage.Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue. 5. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole? The distinct, ion between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract it is not the language people rattling use, but parole is concrete it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. 6. (1) What if there were no language? (2) What if there were only one language the world over? (3) What can we learn from this Bible story? Language is powerful as a tool of human communication. 7. (1) What measures do you suggest for protecting dialects as well as languages? (2) Do you think that someday people all over the world will speak only one language, or someday no dialect will exist? 8. Can our pets learn human languages? Why or why not? No. They are genetically not endowed with the 9. What role does body language play in language commun

Western Art Discussion

Exit Through the Gift Shop is a movie directed by Banksy which is centered around Thierry Guetta Mr. Brain Wash- a Frenchman. Guetta created exhibits of art consisting of many pre-existing prints. Using a computer, he distorted them and probably managed to sell them for some trillion dollars. Banksys film does not show much about Banksy. Rather, he filmed it in a way that takes a look at what factors obligate contemporary art unfit. This movie is thus not such an interesting one. t is however more educative and can enable one to call down their artwork if they are keen with the production (Ryzik). A more disappointing aspect of this movie is that Terry seems to dominate the movie although Bankys is supposed to feature more to showcase his movement of the art. Terry must seek to show that Banksy was a London-based infamous graffiti artist who was however never known by people. This blank space could thus be seen a big ridicule.Banksy tries to demonstrate that contemporary art ne eds people with big finances so that they can have admission price to a large exhibition to market their products besides gaining fame. Thierry cannot be regarded as an artist since he reproduces work which has already being done by another(prenominal) people. he however employs professionals to help him during his work. In conclusion Thierrys documentary about Bankys excellence in his own career is just a percentage to the work of art especially regarding how one can come up in the art industry and finally excel.

Growth Rates Essay

What factors might contribute to a low or high growth rates in a countrified? There are three categories of factors that contribute to a low or high growth rates. These categories are the demand factor, the efficiency factor, and issue factors. Government disbursement or exports can lead to a higher(prenominal) to aggregate demand and higher frugal growth. Economic growth requires amplifys in total spending to garner the output gain made available by increase product capacity (McConnell, 2012, p. 513). One way to accomplish this is by lowering interest rates. lower interest rates make borrowing cheaper. This encourages consumers to spend more money.Efficiency is attained when resources are used in the least costly way to establish the specific mix of goods and services that maximizes peoples well-being (McConnell, 2012, p. 513). For example, when human resources are not being used to their full potential unemployment will increase. As unemployment increases, total spending w ill decrease. This will lower growth rates. Supply factors such as increases in natural resources, increases in human resources, increases in the supply of capital goods, and improvements in technology create a higher economic growth rate (McConnell, 2012, p. 512).Why do some poor countries experience higher growth rates than others when all face the same challenges? Some poor countries experience higher growth rates than others because of its population, its infrastructure, its natural resources, or a combining of these. One example of political relation infrastructure are the policies related to patents and copyrights. Additionally, poorer countries tend to adopt more advanced technology from richer countries. Leader countries are constrained by technological process.Why resources are no longer the nigh important indicators of economic growth disparity among countries? Which other economic and non-economic factors do you think explicate the reasons behind growth disparities amo ng countries? As technology improves, resources are no longer the most important indicators of economic growth disparity among countries. Other economic and non-economic factors that function explain growth disparities are greater education and training, improved resource allocation, increases in the quantity of capital, and economies of scale. This means that firms canproduce each output with few resources.How can sustainable long-run economic growth be realized? What are the roles of the government in achieving sustainable long-run economic growth? sustainable long-run economic growth can be realized through institutional structures such as strong property rights, patents and copyrights, efficient financial institutions, literacy and widespread education, free trade, and a competitive market system (McConnell, 2012, pp. 511-512). Government can help achieve long-run economics growth by reinforcing these institutional structures. The government may need to invest in their infras tructure or create policies that help promote growth. China is a great example of long-term economic growth. Chinas real output has grown over the past 25 years at a rate of nearly 9 percentage per year, quadrupling real output over that period (McConnell, 2012, p. 522).Rising income has led to more saving, greater capital investment, and more direct foreign investment, which has helped fuel growth. Per capita income has increased at an annual rate of 8 percent since 1980, despite Chinas population expanding by 14 million people per year (McConnell, 2012, p. 522). increase use of capital, better technology, labor reallocation from agriculture, and increased privatization has all contributed to greater productivity. Chinas growth has been supported by a dramatic increase in exports ($5 billion in 1978 to $1.2 trillion in 2007) (McConnell, 2012, p. 522).McConnell, C. Brue, S. & Flynn, S. (2012). EconomicsPrinciples, Problems, and Policies (19 ed.). New York McGraw-Hill/Irwin.What are the limitations of the gross domestic product in measuring total output and subject welfare? What products (services) are excluded from the gross domestic product computation? Gross domestic product(GDP) is defined as the total market value of all lowest goods and services produced yearly within the boundaries of the United States, whether by U.S. or foreign-supplied resources (McConnell, 2012, p. G11). GDP has limitations when measuring total output and national welfare because it is a monetary value. GDP only counts final goods and ignores intermediate goods. If intermediate goods were allowed, multiple counting would occur. GDP is not necessarily a good measure of socialwelfare because it doesnt adjust production for negative externalities. The reason that GDP is an imperfect measure of social welfare is that it does not measure many goods and services that have real economic value.The most obvious case is leisure. Leisure is a normal good. GDP excludes non production transac tions because they have nothing to do with the generation of final goods (McConnell, 2012, p. 487).There are ii types financial transactions and secondhand sales. Financial transactions include public transfer payments, private transfer payments, and stock market transactions (McConnell, 2012, pp. 487-488). Also misappropriated goods and resource depletion are excluded. GDP is not reduced by pollution that is produced in processes. Is the GDP measure underestimating or overestimating national production and total income in the economy? Why? GDP is in fact underestimating national production and total national income because there are exclusions.For example, if someone gets paid under the prorogue, this illegal act is not included in the calculation. The same can be said regarding secondhand sales. These sales are happening even though they do not contribute to current production (McConnell, 2012, p. 488). Also, GDP does not take into account inflation. This reduces the actual inc rease in income.What are the impacts of the shortcomings of the GDP as a measure of the national product and national welfare? As stated earlier, GDP has limitations. It is because of these limitations that a true economic picture cannot be seen. Nonmarket activities are the transactions outside the market, and hence there is no reliable price information about them. Unpaid work or under the table is not included. Leisure is ignored understating well-being. Improved product quality due to technological advances tends to improve welfare because they lower prices. This element is usually excluded from GDP. Finally, the underground economy understates GDP because this income is not included. If included, these activities would show a more accurate picture. Currently, the exclusion of the activities gives consumers as well as other countries a false sense of economic stability. GDP is portrayed to be higher than what it actually is.ReferenceMcConnell, C. B. (2012). EconomicsPrinciples, Problems, and Policies (19ed.). New York McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

List and define the steps in the new-product development process Essay

By its truly nature, merchandising requires companies and organisations to develop innovative ideas and dupe adjustments to their marketing efforts. New concepts, designs and returns atomic number 18 inborn for responding to the ever-changing demands of the target market/s, and atomic number 18 crucial for maintaining client satisf serve, which ultimately leads to increased revenues and network for the firm. New- crop emergence dictates the caller-ups future in the market. Every persons wants argon unlimited however, a persons inescapably be narrowed to a limited amount. A harvesting is something that bum satisfy peoples wants and needs. It is one of the variables in the marketing mix (one of the 7Ps). A increase post be considered as the most measurable item in the marketing mix, since ultimately the marketing mix revolves around the Product. It support be offered to the market in the form of honests, services, ideas, events etc, The following are the classificati on of goods . This is crucial in organisation for marketers as market segmentation exercises are carried out within the company in dictate to target certain sort outs of guests with specific use-related and use-situated needs. Below are four main classifications of goods Convenience Goods these are those goods which are bought on a daily basis, harvest-feasts of this type are usually considered as needs. These are goods such as milk, bread, detergents etcShopping Goods these are mostly semi-durable goods which are purchased less frequently then convenience goods. These cost more than(prenominal) than convenience goods, thus people tend to choose yields over others in a process of choosing the preferred alternative. Clothes and white goods are ordinary examples persuasiveness Goods these are goods which are bought infrequently. If a person decides to purchase a specialty good, one allow take time on choosing the good, since these goods are much more costly than the two previously mentioned. When this type of good is bought after gross sales service is usually provided. Example of this type of goods includes property & motor vehicles & a luxuriousness holiday in a high standard hotel. Impulse Goods these goods are not actively searched by customers when one is making a purchase. However, a locomote minute impulse makes a customer purchase goods. Impulse goods usually occur in supermarkets or department stores.Idea Markets The creation and evaluation of tonic ingathering ideas are important procedures in the brisk ware development process. Idea markets help companies by using virtual stocks to represent product ideas, introducing a virtual marketplace for these ideas to interact and use the forces of the market to generate certain stock prices that allow for indicate whether a product idea could be happy or not. Thus, the concept of idea markets has been considered as one of the leading regularitys of creating and evaluating recent-fang led product ideas. Both the creation and evaluation of ideas require certain things such as creativity and long-range forecasting abilities, nevertheless they also suffer from a great deal of uncertainty (Creative Trainer 2007) . The following three factors show why idea markets have been proposed as the saucy method of creating and evaluating product idea, mainly because they positively influence the prime(a) of freshly product ideas 1.Large Number of Ideas and Idea CreatorsIt is essential that the feel of product ideas is given importance, as this determines the commercial success of the product. However, it is not quite that easy to determine the people that should be involved in the product creation as well as the main characteristics of the product idea. A wide pool of ideas might give rise to some unexpectedly good concepts that arent in demand at the moment but might be the breakthrough product idea sometime in the future. To broaden the background signal of the search of the next outgo product idea, companies consult with several diverse and external sources such as employees, suppliers and researchers . Due to its uncertainty, participants of idea creation should come up with a substantial amount of product ideas. It follows that a high quantity of idea correlates to a high quality of positive product ideas, thus, creativity is an important element that shouldnt be under-valued or diminished. Activities of idea creation, such as brainstorming, should promote individual creativity.Companies nowadays are creating and innovation friendly and relaxed office environment so as to enhance the innovative performance and creative thinking. Innovation leads to the development of new ideas in order to sustain present customer needs within the market. This can be achieved with the support of many different processes that help the company to expand into something different sooner of building on something that they already have. whiz ofthe many methods of innovation is symbiotic ideas, where multiple ideas are combined, adding the pros of all ideas without incurring all the cons, to make a better general idea. The second method, targeted innovation, is highly use in bragging(a) scale companies and deals with the idea of a direct path that leads to a result that is not completely known from the beginning of the process but also expected. Finally, the revolutionary idea is one that portrays a whole new different perspective which sets it apart from traditional school of thought. An example of this ideology is Marxism .2.Group decisions instead of individual decisionsWhen companies engage in purpose a new product to develop, ideas about a new product can be established from a group of idea creators and by means of a discussion and exchange of opinions. This allow result in high quality ideas that can prove usable to the company when deciding what product to produce. Ideas formed through group discussion can be generated through se veral activities such as idea competitions and ideation games, this pass on cause the participants to widen their thoughts and observe other participants ideas before acting. It is also ideal that the persons that entrust evaluate the product work as a group, this will remediate the quality of their evaluations imputable to the fact that one person might see something that the other person missed and even one can also remark the other until a compromise is found. Interactive and iterative evaluation techniques allow participants to widen their knowledge and continuously learn more and more, thereby improving the quality of the decision taken .3.Combining the creation of ideas with their evaluationMost of the ideas generated will support either the creation of the new product or the evaluation of the new product. This will be beneficial due to the fact that participants can focus more towards the creation process. The problem that arises whitethorn be the fact that idea creators will not receive immediate feedback regarding their ideas, this whitethorn result in the ideas being vague or even out of the range intended for them to be in.The ideas generated are usually split into three main criteria mainly being in respect of their quality, commercial success and new to the world. Thecriteria usually provide skewed results and only hardly a(prenominal) of the ideas turn out to be of a high quality. Another problem that may arise is the fact that companies review a large number of ideas from which only a moderate portion are processed for further development. Participants who have knowledge of the product and are able to create new product ideas are usually even capable of evaluating the product ideas generated. Combing these participants together results in a positive and successful evaluation of new product ideas.Levels of product When intrusive for new product ideas one must also keep in mind that the product is make up of three components Core product, Ac tual product and Augmented product. The core product is the part of the product that makes it beneficial to the consumer and answers the question What is the buyer really buying? The actual product is the tangible, physical product. The Augmented product on the other hand refers to the non-physical part of the product, the added value one gets from purchasing the product, such as customer service, after sales support, delivery, installation etc .Product Characteristics When finding and developing new product ideas one should incorporate and think about the product attributes, branding, packaging and labelling. One must consider the quality level and quality consistency of the product. This refers to how the product is perceived and how the product will be expected to perform during its life. One should also think about the features that are expected to die hard from the product and the characteristics of the product that contribute to the benefits it offers. Substantial thought sho uld also be given regarding the design of the product. Another important aspect of the product that requires rational, especially in new companies, is the brand of the product. This usually incorporates a name to the product, sign, symbol or a combination of the above mentioned. Branding provides a unique attribute to the product therefore it should be attractive and easy to recognise and remember. Many people buy a product solely on the strength of the brand. The packaging of the product is yet another important factor. It includes the wrapper or container for the product. The packaging shouldprotect the product and ensure it reaches the buyer in the condition it is intended to and also incarnate with the packaging should be a set of instructions and natural rubber labels on how to handle the product .Managing the New-Product Development Process The need for new product development may arise due to other external forces such as competition from rival firms. Innovation and new ide as are forced into play within the market as firms compete for a bigger customer base and market share. In addition, new product development may occur due to the actual product becoming obsolete and/or inadequate for present customers needs. There are many other reasons why new product development is vital. These may include -Innovative/unique products earn higher profits than older products. -New products can help reposition the company in customers minds and shift their perception about the new product/s -Some firms market seasonal products that reap their highest sales during a certain time of the family (for example, ice-cream vendors). Expanding the firms product mix into new areas may help offset these fluctuations.The development method may take two forms. The company can develop new products in its own laboratories or it may contract independent researchers or firms to develop specific original products. Furthermore, we can identify sestet categories of new products 1.New -to-the-world products. (Such as the first Microsoft tablets were in 2002) 2.New product lines (new products that allow a company to enter an established market) 3.Additions to alive product lines (New product that supplement existing products, eg new flavours, sizes etc) 4.Improvements and revisions of existing products5.Repositioning ( existing products that are targeted to new markets)6.Cost ReductionsBefore we get to the new product development process there are few decisions a company must take. It must decide on how to segment the market, which will be the target customers, identify their needs and determine its market positioning for the new product. Nowadays, companies use customer-driven engineer, which is the process whereby the design of the final (new) product incorporates its target customers preferences. These preferences are determined through market research methods, such as the collection ofprimary and secondary data. Lastly, the company must set a budget for the new product. Management must decide what proportion of investment will be necessary for research and development activities as well as the gathering of market intelligence and market research. Once this is set, the New-Product Development process may begin. There are 8 steps in the New-Product Development process as defined by kotler.1. Idea GenerationThe process starts with the hunt for new ideas. The key to successful ideas, is understanding customers present or unmet needs in the market. For example , Procter &Gambles efforts in 1985 to create a bold new advertising campaign for Folgers to catapult it into market leadership began by watching consumers make coffee and by listening to their descriptions of their process of open-eyed up in the morning. From these efforts came the insight that people actually wake up to the smell of coffee before they get to the taste And, thus was born The best part of waking up The insight worked so well, its still guiding the marketing campaign t oday twenty years later. Ideas for new products can be obtained from customers, the companys R&D department, focus groups, competitors, salespersons, employees, trade shows and events etc2. Idea ScreeningThe second stage is to get rid of unsound ideas prior to dedicating resources to them. The screeners must ask at least three questions Will the customer in the target market benefit from the product? Is it technically feasible to do the product?, Will the product be profitable when manufactured and delivered to the customer at the target price? An important consideration must be made in screening ideas. This stage is crucial for companies as they must avoid two types of errors A Drop-error which occurs when a company dismisses a good concept for the new product A Go- error occurs when a company goes forward with a poor idea up until the last new-product development stage, commercialization. This can prove to be extremely costly is the idea is not received well in the market. A recent example of this is when in 2010, GAP launched a new logotype in an attempt to be more modernThis only lasted two days as GAP received an unbelievable criticism from the public, who expressed felt that GAP was changing their image for the worse. 3. Concept Development and TestingHaving identified the right product idea, a product concept must follow this is an flesh out version of the screened idea. The notion here is that a product idea can be turned into numerous product concepts. These concepts are developed with marketing and engineering specifics. Before the next step, the product concept must be tested. This follows by giving the concept and all information about the product to a group of target customers and obtaining feedback and responses from them. The reactions obtained would indicate whether the customers in the target market would welcome concept or not.4. Marketing Strategy developmentIn this stage, the new product formation will begin as a result of the co nclusions derived from the concept development and testing stage. A system-plan would be drawn up as to how best to predate the new product into the segmented target market. The plan describes three parts , The first part describes the markets structure, size and behaviour, as well as the planned positioning of the product and the market share. The second part shapes the expected price, distribution approach and marketing financial plan. The last part of the marketing strategy outlines the sales and profit targets as well as the marketing-mix strategy.5. Business analysisThis is an important step in new product development. The firm must learn different aspects of the new product. It should find out whether the product is profitable or not and what the cost of the new product will be. Under this stage, the demand for the new product should be established and whether the demand is seasonal or regular while also gathering information re any competitors of this new product.Estimatio ns of sales and expenses such as advertising and sales promotion should be made to provide calculations for the approximate profit which thenew product should render. Hence, the new product is analyse from a business aspect. If the new product should earn a profit, it will be accepted, otherwise it will be rejected.6. Product developmentIn this product development stage, the company takes the necessary steps to produce and distribute this product since the company would have already decided to introduce this new product in the market. The production development department will make strategies to produce one or more physical versions of the product concept, while the marketing department will make plans on how to distribute the product. The financial department will provide all the finances required to introduce the new product. Before the test marketing stage, plans for the advertisements for the new product will be made on a trivial scale.7. Test marketingTest marketing is introd ucing this new product on a small scale and in a small market, in a more realistic setting. If this product is a success in the small market, then it is later introduced on a larger scale. However, if this new product fails in the small market, then the company will test for reasons for its failure. There are different types of test marketing which include the following sales-wave research, simulated test marketing, controlled test marketing and test markets .In sales-wave research, the company gives customers the opportunity to use the product at no cost. At a later stage the company then reoffers the same product or a competitors product at a slightly cheaper price and notes the number of times (sales-waves) each customer selects each product. The simulated test market is a cheaper and faster method when compared to the other methods, but it is not considered as the most accurate due to the controlled setting. The company will make necessary amendments in the new product and will then introduce it again in the small market. If the new product fails for the second time, the firm will reject it. Test marketing is a safety device which reduces risk from large-scale marketing. Although this is a very time-consuming stage, it must be done especially for costlyproducts.8. CommercializationIf the test marketing performed on the new product is successful, then the company introduces their product on a larger scale, which is known as commercialization. The firm will make a large investment in the new product. It will plan when to launch the product in a larger market and where since the market- penetration timing and location are very critical. First entry has its advantage of being on the market before its competitors but might backfire if it is rushed. When a firm coincides its products entry with its competitors, known as parallel entry, this will enhance the markets attention on analysing and comparing products. Whilst a late entry launch will reduce costs while also gathering further knowledge on the size of the market. Companies usually wait for the killer application to occur this may depend on the season or for the older product to be drawn down and to be replaced. The company will produce and distribute the new product on a larger scale where it will advertise the new product on mass media such as Radio, TV, Magazine and Newspapers.The Consumer espousal Process This is the process by which potential customers learn about the new product, tests it out and adopts or rejects it. This process begins from when the consumer first hears about the new innovation up until final adoption of the product. Adoption is a decision made by an individual to become a regular user of a product. There are five stages which adopters of new products have been observed to pass through 1.Awareness consumer becomes aware of the new innovation 2.Interest the consumer seeks more information about the new innovation 3.Evaluation the consumer considers whethe r or not to try the product 4.Trial the consumer actually tries the product so as to enhance his/her evaluation of it. 5.Adoption the consumer becomes a customer and decides to make regular use of the product. It is the task of the new-product marketer to make this process as easy and swift as possible so as to capture the consumers interest and turn it into the action of actually adopting the product.Conclusion In conclusion, companies must realise the importance that the product has in the marketing mix. Improved and replaced products will expand and maintain sales and profits for the company. However, when coming to develop a new product, companies must realise the importance and relevance of the steps involved in creating and introducing new products into the market. The key is to develop a product which is innovative, up to standard, meets the customers present needs and which ultimately has the ability to penetrate the market and claim a place in the customers minds. Thus b y following the New Product Development process, as we have discussed in this assignment, companies will be able develop a product which has a high probability of being successful in the market and which will be demanded by its customers.

Grandma’s House Essay

My favourite topographic point to be when I was bend up was my Grandmas House. Some of my nearly precious memories of my childhood were created at that place. The minute I would walk in the door and see Grandma and Grandpa sitting in their duplicate chocolate-brown corduroy reclining chairs. any concerns or jobs would travel from my head. All that mattered from that point on was that I was at Grandmas. Grandmas house was located on about 20 estates on South Military Rd. . in Winlock. WA. It was the cutest sm alone two narrative white house on her route. On a hefty two dozen hours you could see it from a twosome stat mis off because it had a bright. ruddy Sn roof. It was at Grandmas house where our whole househ ancient would total together on Christmas twenty-four hours to hang out with household. portion in a delightful banquet. and unfastened nowadayss. It was normally entire pandemonium. while grownups where seeking to study dinner ready. The kids were traveling brainsick te asing everyone until they were eventually allowed to open nowadayss.The nowadayss. to look at. were nil you would believe a adult female with as many old ages of wrapping experience would look like. It did non count how many nowadayss each one of us got. Grandma managed to acquire everything wrapped in one large galvanic pile with normally two different sorts of wrapping paper because she would run out and utilize whatever she had on manus. Heaven forbid she should blow wrapping paper. one time the mayhem of present gap was done. we would all sit down to a fantastic Meleagris gallopavo dinner. My favourite portion of dinner was my Grandmas spread gravy. It was made with existent bacon lubricating oil. flour. and a mixture of milk and H2O. Just thought of it makes my mouth H2O. Although Grandma was non the best cook. I still crave her cookery to this twenty-four hours. Summers at Grandmas were every bit memorable. These were a lot more particular times with merely the cousins and Grandma and Grandpa. My cousins and I would pass hours up the steps in my pa and aunts old sleeping rooms playing frock up and feigning like we were the parents and re-arranging our houses. The babe doll I ever used. while we played house. was one that had been passed down for many coevalss. His name was Mr. Peabody the hapless thing had his fingers chewed off and balls taken out of his caput. nil particular by any agencies. but I loved him. I still have him to this twenty-four hours. When it was nice out. we liked to play out in the barn. on that point was so much old material out at that place that they had collected over the old ages. It was a gold mine for kids with nil to make and a superb imaginativeness. My most graphic memory of the barn was a hot summer twenty-four hours in 1980. My two cousins and I were playing kitchen in the barn. There was an old portable two burner stove that I decided needed to be moved. As I picked it up. I started to trip on something. so I insta ntly let travel of the range.The minute it slammed down. 100s of bees flew out of there and headed heterosexual for me. Within seconds. before I could even respond. I was covered from caput to toenail with bees. I screamed and ran madly out of there. towards the forepart of the house. Grandma heard my shrieks and comes running out to see what the commotion was all approximately. Equally shortly as she got to me. she started snap off my apparels and hitting me with them seeking to acquire the bees away. This twenty-four hours was besides memorable because it was the first twenty-four hours I wore my new preparation bandeau. At the clip. I did non recognize which was worse. the hurting from the 100s of bee stings I had received. or the embarrassment of standing in the front pace. stripped down to my panties and new preparation bandeau.With all the fantastic memories I had turning up all I could of all time conceive of was to someday populate at that place. That twenty-four hours cam e much sooner than I could hold of all time imagined. In 1992 my Grandma was diagnosed with Lou Gehrigs disease. It was a really hard clip cognizing that there is no remedy and holding no thought how much clip will be left with the stone of your household. Grandmas house became even more particular. In January of 1993 my Grandpa passed off. At the same clip. I found out I was pregnant with my first kid. In June of the same twelvemonth. we lost Grandma besides. Although it was a truly unsmooth twelvemonth. it made things easier cognizing that when my boy was natural I was traveling to be conveying him place. to Grandmas house.

Human motivation Essay

Human Motivation Essay interrogative sentence 1. Compare and contrast the theories of over lean and obesity. Describe how the components of Human Motivation relate to the obstacles dieters face today. Analyze wherefore these obstacles exist and, in any case, motivations role in dieting. (note to student feel free to use bulleted lists to make a geological period of comparison/contrast but then provide, in paragraph form, a narrative explanation. ) From the study conducted by the World Health Organization, they have set a standard on the classification of obesity and over load. correspond to them, a person is considered overweight if her/his Body Mass Index is in the range 25 to 29. 9, plot of ground BMI value above the range is considered obese. There are many theories formulated regarding obesity. These are the Set compass point Theory, Enzyme and endocrine Theory, Fat Cell Theory, Theory of Thermogenesis, Thermic Effect of Food, and External Cue Theory. In attachment to the se, some other take disorders were considered as one of the causes of obesity. Set Point Theory varies among individual since it is the range of weight where ones remains is set to have and will maintain it if the person allows it to.While the Enzyme and Hormone Theory also varies among individual depending on his/her body program, meaning how much or how little his/her body produces hormones and enzymes that are necessary for digestion and gaining weight. However, this theory shows in some studies that some hormonal problems regarding obesity are inherit and can be passed on to their offspring. The Theory of Thermogenesis on the other hand states that obesity may be acquired if the energy intake is exceeds energy used by the body. The energies unused are stored as fat in various parts of the body.Next is Thermic Effect of Food is the term used to express the energies consumed during the digestion and other processes that requires the burning of energy during digestion. Protein requires the highest energy to be consumed, next is carbohydrates then fat. Finally, External Cue Theory only if states the availability of food and the easiness of its access. In contrast, the theories on overweight are not specifically termed alike(p) that with obesity since, it is not yet considered a health problem compared to obesity, it is just a horrible warn that a person may reach obesity if being overweight is not controlled.Overweight is having surplusage fats and looking bigger and rounder than other people their age and at sequences may make believe their physical activities like running and jumping. Though some of obesitys theory can also be applied to this. Like for example, the availability of food, the energy intake is more than the energy used, and other eating disorders. Human Motivation is a perspective that can influence a mans sufficeance, in time to achieve such goals, a person should have knowledge on how to achieve it and the opportunity and time to achieve such goals.Usually, overweight and obese people who want to achieve a normal weight faces obstacles in the knowledge and opportunity aspects. Also, some obese people are hindered by the disabilities accompanied by obesity, like being not able to walk or stand. However, to those who can still perform closely to achieve normal weight, one can have a strict diet plan, exercise regularly, stomach into sports or other activities pertaining to weight loss. 2. Explain how foreplay affects a humans motivation to either perform or procrastinate.Be sure to explain the physiological aspects of arousal. Create the following real-life scenarios to illustrate your understanding. Arousal is the touch off of the brain and the body systems in order to be able to perform. It has two arousal systems cortical (brain system) and involuntary nervous system (body). Arousal affects human motivation to perform or procrastinate since excessive arousal can dim intelligence and may cause a low pe rformance level of a person on a difficult situation, while moderate arousal can cause a better performance.A real-life example for this is, a woman witnessing a car accident, with victims severely injured. If the woman, panics, activating her cortical and autonomic nervous system on its highest level, then she might be responding in a less intelligent way, than to control her emotion, try to relax to diminish the activating her arousal systems so she can echo smartly, make right choices and respond wisely to the incident.a) Create a real-life scenario for a teenage male word picture the role of arousal in performance and include the application of one theory of Human Motivation. For example, apply the Hierarchy of Needs Theory, a teenage male survives a plane crash and got stuck in a forest. If the male does not control his arousal it may cause panic and it will dim his intelligence on how to act wisely on the situation, and the opposite happens when his arousal in low.

Market Competitiveness Essay

Market emulousness is the war-ridden shore an organization has over another. This competitive edge coffin nail range from employee salaries, growth, stock, and employee benefits. Competitive securities industrys are peachy for companies to stay in business and to keep up with its competitors. Companies capture to rationally establish a competitive edge by what the ships community can offer to exceed its competitors offers. This rationale usually comes from the gilds monetary resources and if a company lacks financial resources the company has to develop alternatives.Each employee needs will be different and will look for many different things when looking for a job or career. on that point are hierarchies of employee needs that helps determine if the company will be a serious fit for the employee. nearly hatful need a penny-pinching salary and not benefits and others need good benefits and a commonsense salary.Market Competitiveness Market competitiveness is whe n an organization has controversy within the same category or market. In a competitive market, markets or organizations ca-ca to compete willingly and openly in ordering to be taken seriously in market competitiveness. Also by an organization being in a competitive market gives one an advantage over another.Organizations have to first research its competition to see what they are doing and to develop a better plan than their competitors. In a competitive market, the organizations have to understand how and why their competitors are able to do some things. For example,A. Offer competitive salaries,B. Offer competitive training, C. Offer a good work facility, D. Offer growth within the company, and E. Offer a good work environment.E very employee has different needs and different aspects they for with in a company. An organization in a competitive market has to develop a rational salary structure and use the resources it has to appeal to the employees as well(p) as potential candi dates. According to Muthoo and Mutuswami (May 2011), Moreover, increasing the competition beyond a true spot increases the distance between the first-best and second-best levels of efficiency. Market competitiveness has many aspects that aids with developing as well as considering the concept of market competitiveness in a pay system, competitive salaries and lack of financial resources, and alternative approaches.Concept of Market Competitiveness in a Pay System The concept of market competitiveness in relation to an organizations pay system is unquestionable by the companys internal factors and remote factors. The internal factors consist of salary rates soon, job value, job need, and employee need. The outside factors consist of laws, the current market, and market need. According to Martocchio (2011, pg 150), Market-competitive pay systems represent companies compensation policies that fit the imperatives of competitive advantage.Companies have to develop some type of pay system or structure in order to cover competitive in the market. A salary structure is a good way for a company to determine if a hierarchy would help with determining market competitiveness. The internal and external factors aid the company with developing a hierarchy of jobs and their salaries.Competitive Salaries and Lack of Financial Resources Competitive salaries are very good shipway of scouting or seeking for employees. In the economy today, candidates are looking for the best or the most competitive salary possible to be or feel financial stable. The reason for this is because people like to be financial stable more so than stress free. The position could be very stressful but if it pays enough someone would apply for the job. According to Martocchio (2011, pg150), Market-competitive pay systems play a remarkable role in attracting and retaining the most qualified employees.Most companies are unable to offer its employees market competitive salaries because of lack of fin ancial resources. Companies have to be in a positive place or the companies financial budget has to be in order to offer competitive salaries. The lack of resources can come from the company having a bad year, someone miss managing the companys funds, or simply a tedious turnover. Many companies now set budgets for new positions that need to be filled by a certain date and time by using a financial forecasting system. Alternative ApproachesThe alternative approaches are the other ways the compensation for jobs or positions can be determined. Some of the alternative approaches are currently used to aid with justifying a positions value and need. A few alternative approaches for a company that has contain financial resources are measuring rod 1 Deciding a number of pay structures,Step 2 Determining a market pay base, Step 3 Defining pay grades or levels, Step 4 Calculating pay ranges, and Step 5 Evaluating the results. According to Martocchio (2011, pg 151), Compensation professiona ls create market-competitive pay base on four activities A. Conducting strategic analysis, B. Assessing competitors pay practices with compensation surveys, C. Integrating the internal job structure with external market pay rates, and D. Determining compensation policies.Conclusion In conclusion, market competitiveness is the competitive edge an organization has over another. Market competitiveness is when an organization has competition within the same category or market. The concept of market competitiveness in relation to an organizations pay system is developed by the companys internal factors and external factors. Competitive salaries are very good ways of scouting or seeking for employees. The alternative approaches are the other ways the compensation for jobs or positions can be determined.

How far were ideological factors responsible for Stalin’s decision to replace the NEP with the collectivisation of agriculture Essay

How far were ideological factors trustworthy for Stalins finis to replace the NEP with the collectivization of agriculture and the cinque yr Plans? I believe that ideological factor were responsible for Stalins decision to replace the NEP with the collectivisation of agriculture and the vanadium category Plans as Stalin was disgruntled by the peasants work ethical code and continuingly wanted to beseem more communist and ideological issues were the main contributors that, if substituted would make a vast discrepancy to Russia. However, other factors besides could pass on been responsible for Stalins decision to replace the NEP with the collectivisation of agriculture and the Five Year Plans such as political and economical aspects. I feel that the main contributor in determining Stalins decision was the economic factors that Stalin was determined to industrialise Russia and under the NEP this was not possible.Ideological factors were responsible for Stalins decision to r eplace the NEP with the collectivisation of agriculture and the Five Year Plans as the introduction of these rising things meant that Russia could become more communist which was what Stalin ultimately wanted. Before collectivisation was introduced, Stalin felt that peasant attitude lacked extremist spirit, rather than producing impress for the good of the community the peasants produced it for themselves and their bear profit. This was viewed as capitalism and was against what Marx, Lenin, Stalin and Russia tried to achieve and the NEP was comp one(a)nt part the peasants develop capitalism. This is true in that of the introduction of collectivisation and the Five Year Plans and Stalin constantly wanted to become a more communist state. Through collectivisation Stalin promised significant increase in production which would award the government to sell more overseas, providing more resources for industrial enterprise and a higher shopworn of living for urban workers. Collecti visation had a devastating effect on the Russian peasantry, which resulted in Stalins change of maneuver in the Five Year Plans.Under the NEP the peasants had prospered while conditions for the workers were slow to improve. Stalin wanted to reverse this. He mean to replace the bourgeois specialists with the red specialists who were educated by the Communist government and who came from the ranks of the working class. However, political factors could also be seen as responsible for Stalins decision to replace the NEP with the collectivisation of agriculture and the Five Year Plans. Stalins desire to initiate collectivisation was motivatedby his struggle against Bukharin and the Partys rightwing. The ancestor nature of collectivisation appealed to the Partys left wing. Moreover, it was far more appealing to galore(postnominal) another(prenominal) in the Communist Party than the right-wing alternative of importing grain. Grain imports would mean reducing the pace of industrialisat ion because the money used to buy grain could not be spent on developing Russias industry and Stalin was incredibly eager to introduce industrialisation, it was one of his main aims for Russia.Under the NEP, importing grain many pack been inevitable as without collectivisation Russia would have had to get grain from abroad or they would have starved. This would have resulted in the slowing down of industrialisation which Stalin would not have been pleased about. Additionally, Stalins own understanding of agriculture (which was very little) also had some bearing on his decision. He had a disparate view and understanding of agriculture to that of Lenin so the changing of the NEP to collectivisation seemed a logical step for Stalin. policy-making factors were also responsible for Stalins decision to replace the NEP with the Five Year Plans. For many, these plans were seen as Stalins desegregation of power. His message was very clear- Lenins Russia, the Russia of the NEP was over, a nd Stalins Russia was just beginning. By this he removed the NEP which Lenin had brought in, so that to provide Russia it was no longer going to go by the words of Lenin, but of Stalin. Finally, economic factors also could have been seen to be responsible for Stalins decision to replace the NEP with the collectivisation of agriculture and the Five Year Plans. The downslope of 1926 saw record grain harvests for the USSR. However, the harvests of 1927, 1928 and 1929 were poorer. The decrease in production forced the price of agricultural products up.Consequently, the standard of living amongst urban workers declined. The NEP caused this decline in production and economically it was terrible for the country as without grain being produced the economy suffered huge losses and many Russian families were homeless. Collectivisation held out the prospect of many economic benefits, those being that large farms would increase efficiency, with improved efficiency it would mean that fewer peo ple were requisite to work on the farms, therefore releasing extra manpower for Russias developing industry and collectivisation promised a significant increase in production. Industrialisation was a main aim for Stalin and in his eye throughcollectivisation Russia would become more industrial however under the NEP this was not possible. Similarly, the First Five Year Plan was introduced in response to the NEPs failure to industrialise Russia. Even the NEPs supporters acknowledge that that policy could only industrialise Russia at a snails pace.The Five Year Plans aimed to speed up this process. It was evident that the NEP was not producing results quick enough and a new approach was needed. In conclusion, I believe that economic reasons were the important factor responsible for Stalins decision to replace the NEP with the collectivisation of agriculture and the Five Year Plans as the economy under the NEP was in tatters and if Stalin had not tried to change the approach quickly t he Russia economy would have been completely destroyed. Stalin wanted to increase the pace in which things were modify under the NEP results were often slow and unpredictable. Although I feel that political and ideological were important in Stalins decision I dont feel that they contributed to the extent that economical factors did. However, many points are linked, one in which that Stalin wanted Russia to become more communist and under the NEP that was not possible. This comes under all tierce factors and was an important factor in Stalins decision. By Lara Williamson12 MBE

Progress of Malaysian Women

The rise of Malayan Wo bleed force Since liberty 1957 2000 Published by Ministry of Wo workforce and Family Develop handst Level 1-4, Block E Bukit Perdana Government Office Complex Jalan Dato Onn 50515 Kuala Lumpur Tel03-29630095 Fax03-26938498 E-mailemailprotected gov. my Websitewww. kpwk. gov. my With mount support from United Nations Development design (UNDP), Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei Darussalam Published September 2003 ISBN983-41432-0-6 Printed by Bar label Design Network Copyright 2003 Ministry of Women and Family Development.All Right Reser ved. Request for permission to reprint each material should be directed to the Ministry of Women and Family Development. CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY FOREWORD CHAPTER 1 under(a)structure I. BACKGROUND II. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY III. methodological analysis IV. OVERVIEW OF THE REPORT V. GENDER AND learning PLANNING VI ADMINISTRATIVE MACHINERY FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF WOMEN VII. LEGAL STATUS OF WOMEN Women infra the nation al constitution Employment Legislation and Women Other Laws Affecting the Status of Women VIII.CONCLUSION CHAPTER 2 EDUCATION AND educate OF WOMEN I. access II. FORMAL EDUCATION Enrolment in Primary and Secondary Schools Female Enrolment in Technical and vocational preparation Tertiary Education Education Attainment of Rural Women Inter bailiwick likeness in Educational Attainment III. NON-FORMAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING IV. FUTURE CHALLENGES V. RECOMMENDATIONS VI. CONCLUSION CHAPTER 3 WOMEN AND THE ECONOMY I. INTRODUCTION II.TRENDS IN WOMENS ECONOMIC PARTICIPATION Women in the Labour Force Employment Status of Women Employment by Sector Employment by Occupational Category Potential Growth Areas Women in Business and maestro Services knave vii x 14 14 16 17 18 19 23 26 26 27 28 30 33 33 33 34 37 39 42 42 43 47 50 51 53 53 54 54 55 56 61 64 The advance of Women Since Independence III. IV. V. Women Entrepreneurs From Micro-Enterprises to Sm exclusively and long s uit Enterprises (SMEs) FUTURE CHALLENGES RECOMMENDATIONS CONCLUSION 5 67 70 72 73 73 74 74 74 76 78 79 79 80 80 82 82 83 84 86 87 89 90 CHAPTER 4 WOMEN AND easyness I. INTRODUCTION II. GENERAL health STATUS Indicators of Health Status Maternal mortality localize Nutritional Status of Women Fertility Trends III. REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH SERVICES Family picturening Antenatal and Post recessum C ar Management of Cervical and Breast Cancers IV. HEALTH CONCERNS IN THE NEW MILLENNIUM Health Needs of Older Women Domestic Violence Mental Health The human immunodeficiency virus/AIDS Epidemic V. FUTURE CHALLENGES VI.RECOMMENDATIONS VII. CONCLUSION CHAPTER 5 WOMEN IN DECISION MAKING AND POWER sh ar 93 I. INTRODUCTION 93 II. TRENDS IN LEADERSHIP AND POWER SHARING 94 Political membership and Leadership 94 Political Candidacy 96 Elected Offices and Appointments 97 Representation in the express Assemblies 99 Sh ar of Leadership and Decision-Making Positions in the do master( prenominal) Sector 99 Key Management Positions in the Public Sec tor 99 Appointments in the Foreign Service 101 Representation in local anaesthetic Authorities 101 The Grass antecedents Level 103III. IV. V. Management Positions in the Private Sector Non-Government Organizations (NGO), Trade Unions and Cooperatives fellowship in NGOs Participation in Trade Unions Representation in Cooperatives FUTURE CHALLENGES RECOMMENDATIONS CONCLUSION 104 cv 105 106 108 108 111 112 115 REFERENCES LISTS OF BOXES cuff 1. 1 1. 2 1. 3 2. 1 3. 1 Titles Page Malaysias beginning(a) Lady, Dato Seri Dr. Siti Hasmah bt. Mohd.Ali An Inspiring Role Model for Malaysian Women 12 Definition of divergence 30 Selected pertinent Declarations and natural action jut outs Signed by the Government of Malaysia 31 Scaling Up Micro-Enterprises, division of Agriculture 46 Datuk Muhaiyani Shamsuddin, hold and Managing Director of Muhaiyani Securities Sdn Bhd and Deputy Chairperson of the Kuala Lumpur Sto ck Ex swop 66 Dato Sharizat Abdul Jalil An Advocate and Solicitor, an Eminent Corporate ensure and a Cabinet government minister 91 Tan Sri Datuk Nuraizah Abdul Hamid A Woman of Distinction in the Public Service 113 . 1 5. 2 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2. 1 2. 2 2. 3 Title Page Primary School Enrolment by hinge on, Malaysia,19572000 34 Secondary School Enrolment by S ex, Malaysia,19572000 35 Per cen cartridge holderage of Males and Females in Primary and Secondary Schools, Malaysia,19572000 36 2. 4 2. 5 2. 6 2. 7 2. 8 2. 9 2. 10 2. 11 2. 12 2. 13 3. 1 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 4. 4 4. 5 4. 6 5. 1 5. 2Number of Students Enrolled in Year Six to Form Five by Sex,19911995 Enrolment in Vocational and Technical Schools by Sex, Malaysia,19572000 proportion of Female Male Students in Vocational and Technical Schools, Malaysia 19572000 Enrolment in Tertiary Institutions by Sex, Malaysia, 19572000 Proportion of Males and Females in Tertiary Education, Malaysia,19592000 Enrolment in Engineering Course, Malaysia,19911998 Output of Graduates in Engineering, Malaysia,l9911998 Educational Attainment of Women by Stratum, Malaysia, 1970,1980 and 1991 Number of Students in Adult Education Classes by Sex, Malaysia,19581967 Literacy Rate by Sex, Malaysia,19702010 Per centage Distribution of Employed Persons by Occupation and grammatical gender, Malaysia,19572000 Maternal Mortality per 1,000 Live Births. 19562000 Life Expectancy at Birth in Malaysia by Sex,19572000 Number of Pap Smears exhibit by the Ministry of Health, 19821998 Number of Reported Cases of Domestic Violence, 19841997 Number of Suicide and Self-inflic ted Injury Cases in Malaysia by Sex Number of Women Living with human immunodeficiency virus and AIDS,and Deaths in Women from HIV/AIDS Percentage of Women in Elected Offices/ constitute Offices, Malaysia,19592001 Women in Top Management in the Malaysian Foreign Service 1992,1994 and 1999 7 37 38 39 40 41 41 42 43 44 63 75 76 81 84 85 86 98 101 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY i. Efforts to forge great versed practice satisfactoryity get under ones skin resulted in Malaysian women achieving significant gird in get word socio-stinting lands since Malaysia gained independency in 1957. However, despite the impart make, bracing concerns on the role and consideration of women pee emerged that could adversely profess the booking of women in the providence and friendly spheres. In light of this, the Government of Malaysia, the United Nations Development platform (UNDP) and the United Nations induce Fund (UNFPA) jointly undertook a study to document and label the progress of women in Malaysia during the period 19572000.This study is think to capture the achievements of women in teaching,health,economy, politics and power overlap, and decision making. Secondary breeding from the Department of Statistics surveys and administrative records from organization agencies and nongovernmental organisations are used for the study. The report for the study contai ns cinque chapters, with chapters 2 to 5 assessing the progress of women in specialised recognize areas while chapter 1 highlights the Governments initiatives taken to realize women in teaching. Development intentionning for the overture of women was introduced in the ordinal Malaysia Plan, which has a chapter on the breeding of women.The ordinal Plan and subsequent plans contain strategies to incorporate women in the make of organic evolution in line with the objectives of the field of study romance constitution on Women (NPW). Equit able sharing of resources and inlet to opportunities for men and women forms one of the objectives of the NPW. The reflection and murder of an action plan to operationalise the NPW during the Seventh Malaysia Plan resulted in the writ of execution of more than(prenominal) coherent and focused programmes to commix women in development and gain their situation. meaningful progress has in addition been made in the backcloth up of the invited institutional and administrative machinery to plan, coordinate, implement and reminder the development of women. These entangle the Ministry of Women and Family Development, the Department ii. iii. vii f Women Affairs (HAWA), the National consultatory Council for the Integration of Women in Development (NACIWID) and the National Council of Womens Organisations (NCWO). In addition, the human action of new laws and the continuous revue and amendment of existing command have been undertaken to hold open, reinforce and protect the rights and court-ordered status of women. iv. Malaysian women have benefited from increased access to education and training as indicated by the avail in their literacy rates and net enrolment at only levels of education since 1957. The enrolment of womanly students at the uncreated level increased by more than three and a half times during the period 19572000.At the supplementary level, the enrolment of womanish students increased by more than 36 times to reach a add enrolment of 985,692 students in 2000. With regard to enrolment in technical and vocational schools the percentage of male students has forever been higher(prenominal) than female students. The enrolment of Malaysian women in tertiary institutions reflected the evolution of tertiary education in Malaysia, which has been gradually expanding in lend play and relative terms, especially after 1970. In 1959, female undergraduates comprised 10. 7 per cent of the total student enrolment in the University of Malaya, but increased to 51. 3 per cent of the total enrolment in local universities by 2000.Non- formal educ ation in the form of adult education, home frugals and entrepreneurial training programmes has improved the literacy rates of rude women and enabled them to acquire new knowledge and skills. Despite the increasing number of female student enrolment at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels, the concentration of female students in non-technical courses is a study area of concern. The participation of women in the apprehend force has been increasing since 1957,they are engaged in paid recitation or are employers, self-employed and unpaid family workers in all economical areas. all overall, female employment accounted for 34. 7 per cent of total employment in 2000 as compared to only 24. per cent in 1957. An analysis of female employment by occupational category also shows a rising prune of women moving into occupations that require postsecondary education. However, the majority of women are concentrated in low-skilled and low-waged occupations. They are viii v. under- dallyed in top managerial and decision-making posts in both the public and undercover sectors. Gender-specific issues that happen to hinder the progress of women in the economy embroil handed-down sexual practice constructs, sex role stereotyping and sexuality division of work, multiple roles of women, gender segmentation and strat ification, and gender dissimilarity at work.To address these issues, more concrete steps willing have to be taken so that womens involvement in the labour foodstuff and corporate valet can be more significant and meaningful. vi. Improvement in the health status of Malaysian women in the last foursome decades has been the key to their well- being and active participation in the economic, political and social development in the sphere. Efforts in expanding and developing health services targeted at women and the family have been successful in trim the incidence of deaths arising from communicable and noncommunicable diseases. The average emotional state history expectancy of women increased from 58. 2 historic period in 1957 to 75 years in 2000. The maternal mortality rate, a direct index finger of womens generative health, has declined by tenfold to 0. per 1,000 live behaves after 43 years of independence. However, new health concerns are uphill and these accommodate th e health guides of older women, occurrence of domestic violence, mental disorders and increased incidence of HIV/AIDS cases. Malaysian womens share in power sharing and decision-making in politics and the economy has been on an upward trend since independence. thither has been an incremental increase in women voters, membership in political parties, political candidates, and appointments to elected and appointed offices. However, a gender gap unagitated exists between men and women in terms of access to highlevel positions and participation in decision-making.The number of women guardianship top management posts in the civic service and corporate sector is still relatively small. Gender barriers leading to the under-representation of women in decision-making and powersharing positions include heathenish and institutional factors, gender roles and ethnicity, political culture, limited platform for women in political parties, lack of a unfavorable mass, and gender-blind elements in recruitment and promotion. ix vii. Dato Seri Shahrizat Abdul Jalil rector of Women and Family Development Malaysia Since independence,women in Malaysia have actively contributed towards the development of the country. Over the past four decades, we have seen significant improvements in the status of women and in gender e timberland.The educational learning of women is at a higher level, their participation in the labour force has increased and legislation that grants contact opportunities for women and respect for their human rights has been adopted in Malaysia. The country now has a growing number of women Ministers and form _or_ system of government makers. This report documents the achievements of women in Malaysia since the country attained independence in 1957 and allow us a matter into the past to gain invaluable lessons. I businesslikely hope that this report will be an grand source of information to everyone who has the interest of Malaysian women in their hearts. The report also takes the opportunity to x reward Malaysian women who were pioneers in their respective fields and achieved success, all in their own terms.The accomplishments of these women will definitely be an inspiration to different women in Malaysia to strive for great heights. While the progress attained by women in Malaysia is remarkable, there is still room for improvement in certain areas, especially in science and engineering science. We can non abide to bask in the successes we have achieved olibanum far. We essential never forget that the gains made to date may be reversed should indifference, complacency or negligence set in. The journey to conjure womens status in Malaysia is a continuing one because we have an important role to play in supporting pile 2020,that is, the Governments aim for Malaysia to achieve a developed country status by the year 2020.The report would not have come to fruition without the support and cooperation from individuals and organi zations, the public and private sectors, and the non-governmental organisations. Therefore, I would like to extend my sincere appreciation especially to the frugal Planning Unit of the Prime Ministers Department, members of the maneuver Committee, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) for the assistance rendered in preparing this report. Thank You. July 2003 xi The further of Women Since Independence Box 1. 1 Malaysias First Lady, Dato Seri Dr Siti Hasmah bt. Mohd. Ali An Inspiring Role Model for Malaysian Women Dato Seri Dr Siti Hasmah bt. Mohd. Ali,married woman of the Prime Minister of Malaysia, is a medical doctor.She was the second Malay woman to graduate from the Faculty of Medicine,University of Malaya in Singapore in 1955,and in a way,set the record for women in her time. She attributed her medical achievement to the foresight of her father who support his children to excel in their studies by sending them to the best schools. She was the first woman to be appointed a medical incumbent in the Maternal and Child Health Department in the state of Kedah, which had a high incidence of poverty in the early days after independence (1950s to 1960s). In 1974,she was the first woman to be appointed as the State Maternal and Child Health Officer. Thereafter, she became aware of the needs of women, the majority of whom were illiterate, excruciation from ill health and living in extreme poverty.Due to poor education as well as inadequate infrastructure, including health services, they were resorting to traditional birth attendants. According to her, in the early days, m all women died during childbirth from a lack of health services. Stillbirths and infant mortality were common occurrences. Diseases like tuberculosis plagued the people, especially the children. Women were ignorant of the methods of family formulation. This prompted her and her keep up to pioneer the setting up of the Kedah Family Pl anning Association, a non-government organisation offering family preparation services to women, thus providing them a means to plan their pregnancies.Her efforts in promoting the health of women is evident in several(prenominal) articles she wrote on the socio-economic factors associated with motherliness and childbearing in Malaysia. She has been accorded academic recognition as reflected by her appointment as the Chancellor of the multimedia University in 1997 and the honorary doctorates she has received not just from local (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia) but also from foreign universities (Indiana University, design forces and University of Victoria, Canada). In 1992, she was chosen as one of the six Core-Group Initiators of First Ladies to champion the economic procession of rustic women,and in 1995, she Continued on next page 12The Progress of Women Since Independence imitation the chairmanship of the Regional Steering Committee on the Economic forward motion of Rural a nd Island Women for the Asia Pacific Region (RSC-AP). In 1996, she took over the point of the Inter field Steering Committee on the Economic Advancement of Rural Women (ISC) as its president. According to her,just to begin with independence the country was preoccupied with post-war reconstruction and during that time, health status was static. Health services were primarily provided through and through a limited number of government dispensaries (in urban as well as rural areas). There has been significant progress made in health services after independence.This is reflected in improvements in health statistics and the easy availability of services, even in remote and rural areas. The progress is partly due to the counterinsurgency that has prevailed since independence which had allowed the Government to channel continuous efforts into development in all fields. Education has been an important bestow factor. She says, The woman of today is educated so that she can be economical ly independent. She is also healthy and is able to take go care of the family. Social and cultural barriers like marrying young, having big families and having to deal with negative attitudes of men can be overcome when women are educated. On the progress of women,she says,Women need to recognise that we have gained so much through the hard work of our predecessorswe need not battle for what we have but they had to fight every inch of the way. Therefore, we must recognise,give credit and be grateful to the men and women who have made it possible. Women must acknowledge that we need to work together with men,and together we will be effectual partners in development. Dato Seri Dr Siti Hasmah verbalise that the future challenges for Malaysian women include competition among women, exposure to and keeping abreast with men in the area of information technology (IT),and development of entrepreneurship among women.The concerns for women also include married women having to cope with t heir careers and families, coping with children who are better educated than their parents, and the impact of HIV/AIDS on women,children and men. Source Personal interview, July 2001 13 The Progress of Women Since Independence Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION I. BACKGROUND 1. 01 The role and status of women in Malaysia have undergone a profound change since Malaysia gained independence in 1957. With increased access to education,employment opportunities and changes in the socio-cultural environment, Malaysian women have progressed and participated effectively in all dioramas of development of the country. Within a period of 43 years they have made inroads into all areas of development and spheres of life.Particularly encouraging is the progress made by women in mevery key areas such(prenominal) as education, health, employment, and participation in power-sharing and in the decision-making processes. Changes in the legal and institutional framework have also been made to protect, preserve and safeguard their rights and improve their status. As Malaysia evolves from a subsistence agricultural economy to a knowledgebased economy, women will continue to be a primary force influencing the development of future generations of Malaysians as well as an important economic resource. Changes in the socio-cultural environment, which have helped to shape the profile of Malaysian women today, will continue to impact women in development. 1. 02 The 2000 Population Census indicates that about 49. per cent or 11. 4 million of the total population were women,with 52. 6 per cent in the age group 24 years and below, indicating a young female population. The residual of the female population has increased slightly compared to 48. 4 per cent in 1957. Women have a longer life expectancy, 75 years compared to 70. 2 years for men in 2000. Due to their longer life span,the proportion of women in the 65 years and above age group has increased from 2. 8 per cent in 1957 to 4. 2 per cent in 2000. The health status of women has also improved since 1957, for example, the maternal mortality rate declined from 2. 81 per 1,000 live births in 1957 to 0. 2 in 2000.With increased access to education and employment opportunities, women are entering the labour market and marrying at a later age. The mean age of the first join for men and women has arise since 1957,when the mean age for men was 23. 8 years and 19. 4 years for women. For women, it has risen to 22. 3 years in 1980 and 25. 1 years in 2000. 14 The Progress of Women Since Independence 1. 03 As the country progresses towards achieving greater gender touchity, the role of the Government has been supportive, pre-eminent and continuous. In particular, the Government has provided an enabling environment for the advancement of women at both the national and global levels.At the national level, the formulation of the National Policy on Women (NPW) in 1989 marked a turning point, enunciating for the first time clear guidelines for the effective participation of women in the countrys development. Thereafter, the five-year national development plans prescribed specific strategies and measures, including the institution of appropriate mechanisms and institutional framework to more and more assimilate women into the mainstream of social and economic activities. Despite the progress made and new measures introduced, new concerns on the status and position of women as well as old issues continued to prevail during the period 19912000.The issues are m whatsoever-sided violence against women, poverty amongst female-headed households, the need for childcare facilities and support for working mothers, the triple load or excite that women have to carry work-and-family conflicts, sexual harassment at the workplace, and the under-representation of women in politics and decision-making positions. According to gender researchers and analysts, the root cause of these issues is the inability of the Malaysian societ y at large to understand and handle gender problems . Malaysian society continued to perceive the role, responsibilities and relationship between men and women according to the traditional mindset, based on the traditional family model where a male bread-winner heads the family and the wife is a full-time homemaker. The family structure has changed over time particular in the 1990s.The trend shows an increase of nuclear families with dual income and the Population Census 2000 indicates that 58 per cent of working women are married. Working single women and working mothers have specific needs which require a different support system. During the same period, global gender issues were also raised, culminating in the Beijing Declaration and Plan of run, calling on all governments to implement gender sensitivity training that would enable planners to formulate gender-responsive policies and programmes. 1. 04 At the international level the Government showed its commitment to promote the development of women by being signatory to several inte rn ational conventions on women, including the Fourth Wo rl d collection on Women (Beijing, 1995).The Conference identified 12 lively areas of concern for the advancement of women. The areas included poverty, 15 The Progress of Women Since Independence education, health, economy, power sharing and decision-making, and institutional mechanisms. As a postdate-up to the Beijing Conference on Women Plus 5 and taking cognisance of the need to have a more comprehensive and blendd database of information on Malaysian women, the Government of Malaysia in collaboration with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) undertook this study to document and evaluate the progress of women in Malaysia covering the period 19572000.II. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 1. 05 The main subroutine of the study is to chronicle the progress made by women in Malaysia, with special focus on four key areas health, education and training, employment, power-sharing and political involvement. The study covers the period 19572000. The benchmark for measuring womens progress is gender comparability, which is the extent and depth of progress made by women in relation to that achieved by Malaysian men. The study will demonstrate the linkages between national policy initiatives and the advancement of women as well as identify future challenges. Specifically, the study will undertake the following rovide an overview of the progress of women in Malaysia since independence document the progress made in selected key areas, namely, education, health, employment, politics and power-sharing through basic indicators of quality of life such as access to education,health facilities and economic opportunities review and analyse the integration of women in the nations development in terms of policy thrusts, key programmes/projects and activities as well as institutional supportand capture the achievem ents of women in Malaysia in other areas such as economics, politics, social development and law and wherever applicable, singling out prominent women with outstanding achievements and contributions. 16 The Progress of Women Since Independence III. METHODOLOGY 1. 06 This study relies heavily on secondary data from existing government statistics count data,labour force sur veys, critical statistics of the country and departmental records from government agencies and ministries, non-governmental organisations and research institutions. These information sources provided women-specific data as well as genderdisaggregated data for the construction of key indicators for the period 19572000.Key indicators were compiled for the status of womens health, access to education and training, and employment, as well as participation in politics and decision-making. The study also used information and data culled from official documents, research publications and reports from relevant agenci es. The paucity of gender-disaggregated data limits to some extent the analytical aspect of this report in specific areas. An exception is the census and labour force surveys undertaken by the Department of Statistics. 1. 07 In addition,data was also collected using the case study approach where prominent women, who have contributed significantly in their areas of specialisation, were interviewed.Two women high achievers in decision-making and power-sharing positions were interviewed as role models for young women in Malaysia. 1. 08 Apart from the quantitative analysis using time-series data to show trends in womens progress, this study also attempts to analyse the progress qualitatively by performing in-depth analyses of certain pertinent gender-sensitive indicators. For instance, the high percentage of women enrolled in universities is further analysed to see whether women undergraduates are in the first place enrolled in women-traditional programmes (that is, pursuing degrees i n education and other soft sciences) or in nontraditional programmes (such as engineering and computer sciences).Womens participation in the professional or higher-level (administrative and managerial) occupational categories and the male-female ratio deep down a profession are used to assess their progress in employment. The number and share of top-level decision-making positions assumed by women were further analysed to measure the gender gap. To measure the achievement of women in politics, the commonly used gender-sensitive indicator is the womens share of parliamentary seats. 17 The Progress of Women Since Independence IV. OVERVIEW OF THE REPORT 1. 09 This report is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 highlights the government initiatives taken to advance women in important sectors of development, such as the National Policy on Women (1989) and the National litigate Plan.A list of recent amendments to existing legislation that have shanghaied womens advancement and well-be ing are also highlighted. This chapter also highlights the Governments commitment at the international level. Chapters 2 to 5 discuss the progress of women in various key areas. 1. 10 Chapter 2 focuses on education and training of women, with highlights on womens achievement in education at various levels of formal schooling and training. The trends in enrolment rates, or the ratio of male to female student enrolment at various levels of education, are analysed to measure changes in educational attainment of women and gender gaps in education.Other indicators used to highlight the educational attainment of women for the 19572000 period include the ratio of female to male students in technical and vocational education, as well as enrolment in technical and non-technical degree programmes at te rt i a ry levels. This chapter also identifies the issues, gender barriers and constraints encountered by women in education and training. There is also a countersign on womens access to non-f ormal education and training. Indicators used to measure the ad vancement of women in this area include womens overall participation in training as well as in specific types of training offered by various agencies. 1. 1 In chapter 3, womens achievements in economic activities for the period 19572000 are assumption prominence. The chapter elaborates the trends in womens participation in the labour force, by industry and occupational category, in comparison to men. Womens progress is assessed by analysing the trends and the gender gap in the employment status, employment prototype and skills as well as their untapped potential and low labour force participation rate. Gender-specific issues and constraints associated with womens work and productivity are also identified. 1. 12 Chapter 4 traces the progress of womens health since independence using standard mortality and morbidity indicators.It shows how women in Malaysia have made great strides in achieving a higher level of health 1 8 The Progress of Women Since Independence status over the past four decades so that today their mortality and morbidity rates are almost on par if not below that of some of the developed countries. This impressive progress is, in part, due to health programmes that incorporated the risk of exposure approach strategy and the confidential enquiry on the maternal death approach. The chapter also highlights how the cooking of rural health services has contributed to the improvement of the health status of women in the country. It cautions women against several emerging health issues, which they have to face as they enter the new millennium.These issues include concerns for the health of older women as well as adolescents, the threat of infectious diseases including HIV/AIDS,domestic violence, and mental and emotional health problems affecting women due in part to their dual and competing role as mothers and wives and their role as employees. 1. 13 In chapter 5, womens participation i n decision-making and power-sharing positions is assessed by analysing the trends and quality of womens involvement in politics, and as political appointees as well as participants in the public service sector. The number and distribution of female executives in the private sector as well as in non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are also included in the analysis. The findings confirm the wide diversity that exists between men and women in leadership and decision-making positions.The majority of women involved in politics,and as employees in the private sector, cooperatives and NGOs primarily held lower ranking positions. The author attributes the low participation of women in top decision-making or power- sharing positions to the strong influence of traditional thinking that men are leaders, women are followers . In general,this traditional gender ideology permeates the thinking process in the selection of candidates for leadership or decision-making positions. V. GENDER AND DEV ELOPMENT PLANNING 1. 14 Efforts in economic and social development in Malaysia began with the implementation of the First Five-Year Plan (19561960) on the eve of the countrys independence.This plan and the subsequent development plans concentrated on sustaining economic growth,physical development, diversification of agriculture and industrial development with the objectives of expanding employment opportunities and income improvements. The New Economic Policy, launched in 1971, emphasised national unity and nation-building through a two-pronged strategy of 19 The Progress of Women Since Independence eradicating poverty regardless of race and restructuring society so as to eliminate the identification of race with economic functions. None of the development plans, however, gave any special attention to issues and strategies for the advancement of women until the Sixth Malaysia Plan (1991-1995). It was the first time that a five-year development plan had included a chapter detailing programmes and projects for the development of women.The chapter also contains specific strategies to effectively incorporate women in the process of development in accordance with the objectives of the National Policy on Women (NPW),which are as follows to ensure straightforward sharing in the acquirement of resources and information as well as access to opportunities and benefits of development, for men and womenand to integrate women into all sectors of national development in line with their abilities and needs in order to improve the quality of life, eradicate poverty, abolish ignorance and illiteracy and ensure a peaceful and prosperous nation. 1. 15 While the Sixth Plan recognised women as an important economic resource, it identified the following constraints which were inhibiting the involvement of women in economic activities he dual and, often, competing responsibilities of family and career restrict the mobility and increased participation of women in the labour m arket gender differences in schools not only translate into occupational differentiation later it also limits the adaptability and participation of women in the labour market social norms and prejudices regarding the role and status of women in society and in the labour market restrain their involvement in economic activities women with children, who are financially dependent on their husbands, are curiously vulnerable in cases of domestic violence. The lack of skills very often limits their plectrons, thus preventing them from securing alternative sources of income 20 The Progress of Women Since Independence omen are often perceived as secondary earners who only supplement family incomes quite than as co-earners whose economic activities are crucial to the family. Consequently, income-generating programmes targeted at the women generally reinforce their home-maker roles, providing few opportunities for the acquisition of new and more marketable skills the lack of appropriate ma nagement training and the consequent absence of professionalism, inadequate access to credit and a paucity of relevant market information also hinder the participation of women in the economy and the working environment is generally not conducive to the sustained employment of wives and mothers. This limits the training opportunities open and hampers career development.The separation of home from the workplace and the fixed hours of work constitute additional drawbacks that preclude protracted female participation in the labour market. 1. 16 These issues provided the backdrop for the Government to formulate strategies, and plan for the setting up of an appropriate institutional structure to enhance the social,legal and economic position of women in the next decade. The formulation of an toyion Plan to operationalise the NPW in the Seventh Malaysia Plan reflected the Governments efforts to address these constraints and commitment to include women as equal partners in nation buil ding. The areas included in the arrangeion Plan are trengthening the national machinery for the integration of women in development raising public awareness and sensitivity towards issues relating to women mobilising the NGOs to increase their efficiency and forcefulness in undertaking socio-economic programmes encouraging positive action for the advancement of women in various fieldsand 21 The Progress of Women Since Independence promoting the role of women in family development. 1. 17 The implementation of the Action Plan, a pioneering effort that formally began in 1990, had resulted in more coherent and focussed programmes to integrate women in development and further elevate their status in society. However, there are still constraints that limit progress. At the start of this 21st century, the social and economic status of women relative to men is still not satisfactory and the disparity may catch greater due to the effects of globalisation and use of information and co mmunication technology (ICT).In view of these gaps, strategies to enhance the role of women in development were included as one of the key policy thrusts of the National Vision Policy (NVP) 20012010. The NVP states that opportunities in employment, business and social activities will be made available without gender bias, thus promoting equity in opportunities for both men and women. Womens economic participation is to be enhanced through the provision of greater access to training and retraining, more extensive use of conciliative working hours, the provision of creches as well as facilities to enable them to work from home. Entrepreneurship among women will be promoted actively by providing greater access to information,financial and technical resources. 1. 8 To operationalise the NVP in the medium term, strategies and programmes are contained in the Eighth Malaysia Plan (20012005). The strategies for the advancement of women focussed on the following increasing female part icipation in the labour market providing more education and training opportunities for women to meet the demands of the knowledge-based economy and improve their upward mobility in the labour market enhancing womens involvement in business reviewing laws and regulations that inhibit the advancement of women improving further the health status of women cut back the incidence of poverty among female-headed households 22 The Progress of Women Since Independence strengthening research activities to increase participation of women in development and enhance their well-beingand strengthening the national machinery and the institutional capacity for the advancement of women. 1. 19 The Action Plan, National Vision Policy and various other strategies to promote gender equality and progress of women represent formal and continuing efforts taken by the Government under the various development plans. Their coherent and effective implementation will determine the extent and depth of the increm ental progress of women in Malaysia in the years ahead. VI. ADMINSTRATIVE MACHINERY FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF WOMEN 1. 0 The implementation of policies, strategies and programmes requires a supportive institutional structure and appropriate administrative machinery. Significant progress has been made in the setting up of the required institutional and administrative machinery to plan, coordinate, implement and monitor development programmes for women. The establishment of the Ministry of Women and Family Development in February 2001 marks the culmination of efforts to assign womens development and issues to a specific ministry. The establishment of this new ministry represents an important change in the mindset of policymakers who have become more gender-sensitive.Currently, the institutional structure for women and development can be categorised into intend, coordinating and monitoring (Ministry of Women and Family Development), advisory and planning (National Advisory Council on the Integration of Women in Development), advocacy (National Council of Womens Organisations), coordination and monitoring (HAWA) and implementation (line ministries and departments, semi-government and non- government organisations). 1. 21 The Ministry of Women and Family Development is the lead agency to undertake gender responsive planning and policy formulation for women. It is amenable for the integration of women in the national development process through coordination, monitoring and evaluation, planning and policy formulation,and reportage to the Government. Its major 23 The Progress of Women Since Independence objective is to mainstream women in nation-building and strengthen the family institution by incorporate gender into all aspects of planning and development.To ensure that gender and family perspectives are integrated into national policies, it undertakes coordination on gender issues between Government agencies, NGOs, the private sector and communities as well as audi ts existing legislation and regulations that affect the interests of women. Its functions also include increasing opportunities for women to upgrade their socio-economic status, and providing education and training opportunities to women to support its planning functions. To support its planning functions, it undertakes research and development in gender, population,family development and reproductive health. It also acts as the secretariat for the National Advisory Council for the Integration of Women in Development (NACIWID) and is the national contact networking with nternational agencies dealing with womens issues as well as the secretariat for regional and inte rn ational agencies strikeing to womens programmes. 1. 22 HAWA is a major department under the Ministry and the main contributor to the planning process of the Ministry. It was first set up as the Womens Affairs Department under the Ministry of Labour, being responsible for the coordination of the development of women. It also acted as the secretariat to the National Advisory Council. In 1978 it was transferred to the Implementation and Coordination Unit (ICU) in the Prime Ministers Department. In 1983,it was re-designated as a secretariat named HAWA in the Administration and Finance Division of the Prime Ministers Department. Since 1983 HAWA has undergone several changes.In 1990,it became a government department in the Ministry of National Unity and Social Development, but was placed under the Ministry of Women and Family Development upon its establishment in February 2001. The major responsibilities of HAWA are, among others, to implement the capacity development programmes and projects for women, organise gender sensitisation programmes and gender planning courses to enhance awareness about womens concerns among policy makers, planners and programmers, and provide skills in integrating issues in development planning and policy formulation. 1. 23 The National Advisory Council on the Integration of Women in Development (NACIWID), a consultative and advisory body to the Government and non-government organisations, was established in 1976 24 The Progress of Women Since Independence n accordance with the United Nations Resolution on integrating women into the mainstream of the development process. Its members, who are appointed by the Minister of Women and Family Development, are drawn from women leaders in the club, NGOs, professional bodies, political parties, and the private sector as well as academicians and retired civil servants. NACIWID acts as the main body through which women-related issues are channelled to the relevant authorities, and plans and evaluates activities of womens organisations. anyways promoting and encouraging research activities, it also communicates with relevant organisations within and without the country to promote national and international understanding. 1. 24 The NationalCouncil of Womens Organizations (NCWO) is a nonpolitical, non-religious and non-communal organisation, and acts as the umbrella organisation for women NGOs in Malaysia. At present, the NCWO has more than 200 welfare, political,professional and labour organisations affiliated to it, including a number of active and important organisations. The NCWOs main role is to be a consultative and advisory body to womens organisations and to bring all these organisations together. It also has a Commission for Action on the National Policy for Women and state level committees. 1. 25 There are various major organisations implementing women in development (WID) programmes.These include the Community Development Division (KEMAS), the National Population and Family Development identity card (NPFDB),the Department of Agriculture (DOA) and the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA). KEMASs programmes on women focus mainly on family development including home economics such as nutrition and family health at the small town level, work-oriented classes such as tailorin g and handicrafts and agriculture aimed at producing food for the family or the market, and pre-school programmes such as establishing community pre-school child-care centres and adult literacy programmes. The cultural, social,economic and demographic factors which affect women in development are addressed through activities undertaken by NPFPB. It also promotes population and family development as well as reproductive health-related concerns.The DOA and FELDA carry out programmes mainly on family development, improvement of the quality of life, entrepreneurship of target groups, and income-generating activities such as training, financial assistance and other inputs for the benefit of women,primarily in FELDAs 25 The Progress of Women Since Independence agricultural schemes/estates. VII. LEGAL STATUS OF WOMEN 1. 26 Womens legal status with regard to citizenship, education, employment,legal rights and status in marriage, divorce,and the guardianship of children are embodied in the F ederal Constitution as well as in other legislation which have been enacted from time to time. Considerable legislative changes have taken place over time, especially after 1957.New laws have been enacted while existing laws and legislation are continuously being reviewed and amended to preserve, reinforce and protect the rights of women. The adoption of the Women and Girls egis Act 1973 and its 1987 amendments, the implementation of the Domestic Violence Act 1994 in 1996, and the introduction of the Code of design on the Prevention and treatment of Sexual Harassment in the Workplace are examples of legislative measures targeted at protecting the dignity of women. Amendments to other pertinent acts and laws such as the Employment Act 1955 and the improved provisions of the Income Tax Act 1967 are aimed at safeguarding the economic interests of women. Women under the Federal Constitution 1. 7 Malaysian womens rights as citizens to participate in the political and administrative lif e of the nation are implicitly recognised and guaranteed by the Federal Constitution,which states under Article 8, clause 1,that all persons are equal before the law and entitled to the equal protection of the law. Clause 2 further provides that except as expressly authorised by this Constitution,there shall be no discrimination against citizens on the ground only of religion, race, descent or place of birth in any law or in the appointment to any office or employment under a public authority or in administration of any law relating to the acquisition, holding or disposition of any property or the establishing or carrying on of any trade, business, profession, vocation,or employment.This clause does not contain a specific provision against gender-based discrimination and may allow for protective discrimination against women under the Employment Act. The omission was rectified on 2 August 2001, when the Dewan Rakyat approved an amendment to Article 8(2) to include the word, gender i n the categories referred to in the clause, which now readsthere shall be no discrimination against citizens on the ground only of religion, race, descent, place of birth and gender in any law Womens rights are, therefore, now explicitly stated in the Federal 26 The Progress of Women Since Independence Constitution. 1. 28 The Government had also taken steps to accord equal status to women under the Constitutions provisions for the award of citizenship and abiding residence.Under A rticle 15 of the Constitution, no conditions were imposed upon foreign wives of citizens to apply for citizenship. However, a subsequent amendment made in 1962 included various conditions, including the good character requirement for foreign wives of citizens when applying for citizenship. By another amendment to Clause 2 of Article 15,citizen rights could be acquired by any child of a citizen. This amendment puts women on par with men as regards the granting of automatic citizenship of children born to t hem. However, foreign spouses of Malaysian women are denied such rights based on the assumption that, upon marriage, women would follow their husbands to their home countries.With the constitutional amendment of Article 8 (b),steps have been taken to remove the differential treatment regarding the acquisition of citizenship rights by the foreign spouses of Malaysian women (as announced by the Deputy Prime Minister cum Minister of Home Affairs on Womens Day 2001). Employment Legislation and Women 1. 29 The Employment Act 1955 (revised in 1981, 1994 and 1999) is the major legislation which regulates all labour relations, and certain parts apply equally to men and women,such as contracts of service, wages, rest hours, hours of work,holidays, annual leave, sick leave, termination and layoff benefits. There are, however, specific parts in the Act, which pertain only to women, such as maternity protection and night work.There is no stipulation in the Act which prohibits employers gestat eing lower wages to their women employees, as compared to male workers, for doing the same amount of work. Women in the private sector may therefore be subject to wage discrimination. In the public sector, however, women have equal pay for equal work. At present,women in the private sector also do not have any legal redress against wage discrimination. Part VIII of the Employment Act 1955,Prohibition Against Nightwork states that no employer shall require female employees to work between 10 o measure in the evening and 5 oclock in the morning in the agricultural or industrial sectors.However, the Employment Women Shift Workers Regulations 1970 stipulates that any female employee employed in shift work in any approved undertaking which operates at least two shifts per day may work at such times within the hours 27 The Progress of Women Since Independence of 10 oclock in the evening and 5 oclock in the morning, as the Director of Labour may approve The effect of the 1970 regulations i s to allow women . to work at night, with the result that female employees working in night shifts have become the general rule preferably than the exception. Section 35 of the Employment Act also prohibits the employment of women in underground work,unless the Minister gives an exemption. . 30 Part IX of the Employment Act provides for paid maternity leave for a period of not less than 60 consecutive days for every female employee in the private sector. In may 1998,the Government reviewed and extended the maternity leave for women employees in the public sector from 42 days to 60 days, for a maximum of up to five deliveries. Public sector women employees can choose to extend their maternity leave up to three months as unpaid leave. Paternity leave of up to threedays is also given to male employees in the public sec tor. 1. 31 In 1998, another amendment was made to the Employment Act, which provides for flexible working hours.This provision expands the opportunities for women,incl uding homemakers, to be gainfully employed in part-time work. It also provides opportunities for employees to create flexibleness in work processes and arrangements, such as teleworking, homebased work, job sharing, and compressed workweek that would enable women employees to balance their work and family demands. Other Laws Affecting the Status of Women 1. 32 All Malaysians have equal right to education under the Constitution of Malaysia. This implies that there is no discrimination against women and men. Article 12(1) states that there shall be no discrimination against any citizen on the grounds of religion, race, descent or place of birth n the administration of any educational institution maintained by a public authority, and in particular, the admission of pupils or students or the compensation of feesor in providing out of the funds of a public authority financial aid for the guardianship of education of pupils or students in any educational institution (whether or not ma intained by a public authority and whether within or outside the Federation). 28 The Progress of Women Since Independence 1. 33 The Universities and University Colleges Act 1991 stipulates open membership to all irrespective of gender. The New Economic Policy of 1970 also provides equal access to educ ational opportunities for both male and female Malaysians. 1. 4 With regard to the legal recognition of the guardianship of children, the tending of Infants Act 1961 initially militated against women. The Act was amended in 1999 to allow for joint guardianship of children in matters relating to in-migration and registration. With the implementation of the amendment in 2000 mothers are allowed to sign all documents involving their underaged children. 1. 35 The Income Tax Act 1967 (amended in 1975,1978 and 1991) gives an option to married women to have narrate income tax assessment. The clause prohibiting a married working woman from separate income tax assessment was subject to severa l amendments (1975,1978 and 1991). The amendment of 1991 allowed for separate assessments for married women unless they choose to be assessed jointly.Today, women taxpayers, whose husbands have no taxable income, are eligible for taxable relief similar to that available to a male taxpayer whose wife has no taxable income. 1. 36 With regard to the protection of women against domestic violence, the Domestic Violence Act was passed in 1994 and implemented in 1996. Domestic violence is now dealt with as a criminal offence with appropriate penalties imposed. Realising that legislation may only remove the more blatant discriminatory practices, the Government and NGOs in Malaysia continue to push for greater transparency of procedures adopted by police personnel, and have urged for the appropriate training and gender sensitisation of the relevant parties.Currently, the NGOs are pushing for a review and amendment of the Act. 1. 37 The Ministry of Human Resources issued the Code of Practice on the Prevention and Handling of Sexual Harassment in the Workplace on 1 walk 1999. This Code of Practice contains guidelines to employers on the establishment and implementation of in-house preventive and redress mechanisms to prevent and eradicate sexual harassment at the workplace. This approach is believed to be the most effective way of dealing with the problem. Employers are encouraged to implement policies and programmes on anti-sexual harassment, as well as to provide redress mechanisms at the 29 The Progress of Women Since Independence organisational level. 1. 8 There is also a specific legislation to protect the rights and dignity of women. The Women and Girls Pro te ction Act 1973 and the Child Protection Act 1991 were reviewed and streamlined into the Child Act 2000. Both the Women and Girls Protection Act (which contains provisions for prosecuting persons involved in prostitution and trafficking of women) and the Child Protection Act were criticised as being very vagu ely worded and could be liberally interpreted. An underaged girl,if found in a dubious place or circumstances, may be interpreted to be in need of protection and may be detained in a corrective centre. Both Acts contain some aspects of discrimination,which could be damaging to victims. Box 1. Definition of Discrimination Article 1 of the multitude on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) states thatdiscrimination against women shall mean any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing,or nullifying the recognition,enjoyment or form by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women,of human rights and fundamental freedom in the political,economic, social,cultural,civil,or any other field . This definition implies that applying a sluggish rule for women and men will constitute discrimination if the result is that women do not enjoy the intended benef it. 1. 9 In 1995, prior to the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, Malaysia ratified the meeting on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW),with some reservations. VIII. CONCLUSION 1. 40 Malaysian women have made significant progress since Malaysia gained independence in 1957. The progress is perceptible and near universal, with more Malaysian women, in both absolute and relative terms, being 30 The Progress of Women Since Independence involved in all key socio-economic areas than before in education, in health, in the economy, and in power-sharing and decision-making. The quest for greater gender equality has been relatively successful,although improvements can still be made in certain sectors.It will be essential for the Government, which has played a leading role in womens progress in the country, to continue providing the undeniable assistance and legislative support to remove persistent barriers and to consolidate further the gains and pr ogress already achieved. 1. 41 The Governments commitment to improve the status of women has intensified over time. Mainstreaming gender into social and economic development plans is a continuous process to be undertaken by line ministries and state agencies (implementing women specific programmes and projects). regular so, Malaysia is an example of a country which has, since gaining independence, made great progress in improving the quality of life and status of women, particularly in providing them with ever-increasing opportunities to become stakeholders in the countrys economic development. Box 1. Selected Relevant Declarations and Action Plans Signed by the Government of Malaysia Equal Remuneration Convention (ILO No. 100),1951 Discrimination (Employment and Occupational) Convention (ILO No. 111),1958 First World Conference on Women 1975 International Womens Decade (19751985) The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW),1978 Third World Conference on Women,1985 Declaration on the Advancement of Women in the ASEAN Region,1988 Earth Summit Agenda,1991 Geneva Declaration for Rural Women by the Summit on the Economic Advancement of Rural Women,1992 31 The Progress of Women Since Independence World Social Development Conference, 1994 International Conference on Population and Development, Cairo, 1994 Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing 1995 World Food Summit, 1996 Micro-Credit Summit, 1997 An update to the 1995 Commonwealth Plan of Action on Gender and Development Advancing the Commonwealth Agenda for Gender Equality into the New Millennium (20002005)and Beijing Plus 5, Women 2000 Gender Equality, Development and Peace for the 21st hundred (Special Session of the Venereal Assembly, 59 June 2000). 32 The Progress of Women Since Independence Chapter 2 EDUC ATION AND TRAINING OF WOMEN I. INTRODUCTION 2. 01 Article 12 (1) of the Federal Constitution which guarantees the right to education for all Ma laysians regardless of gender has enabled Malaysian women to gain equal access to education and training. They have benefited from the increased access as indicated by the improvement in womens literacy rates and net enrolment at all levels of education since independence.Education, formal and non-formal has been vital for the personal, social and economic development of the women in Malaysia. An ongoing process,it has been the means for improving the knowledge, skills and attitudes of Malaysian women and their development capacity. With higher educational attainment Malaysian women are able to participate actively in the development of the nation, exercise their voice in the family, the communit y, place of work and the public arena of politics as well as enjoy greater economic independence. Despite the improved educational attainment of Malaysian women, gender differences still exist in enrolment in science and technical subjects,and the education they receive has gender stereotyp es that bear on gender inequality. 2. 2 This chapter will trace the achievement of women in education and training, formal and informal, since independence. The advancement of women in formal education will be discussed in terms of the progress made with regard to availableness to education as well as the gender-related concerns such as enrolment in science and technology education. Gendersensitive indicators such as the trends in female enrolment, the proportion of male to female student enrolment at the primary, secondary and tert